Addressing Environmental Challenges Of Fast Fashion Through Legal And Sustainable Practices
Author: LawSphereX
Category: Environmental Law
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ADDRESSING ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF FAST
FASHION THROUGH LEGAL AND SUSTAINABLE
PRACTICES
Shakthi Bharathee. S, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai Prof. Dr. Arun D Raj, Assistant Professor, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai
ABSTRACT
This research paper explores the environmental challenges posed by the fast fashion industry, focusing primarily on water pollution, carbon emissions, and textile waste management. Fast fashion, characterized by rapid production and frequent consumption, significantly impacts the environment, especially in countries like India where the textile industry is extensive. The paper critically examines the existing legal framework, including the Environment Protection Act (1986), Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974), and the Hazardous Waste Management Rules (2016), highlighting their gaps and the need for robust enforcement. International frameworks, such as the EU Circular Economy Action Plan and the Paris Agreement, are discussed to identify potential improvements in India's approach.
A survey of 60 consumers aged 20-30 reveals limited awareness of environmental regulations, emphasizing the need for stricter laws and sustainable practices. The study also explores sustainable alternatives like the circular economy and innovative textile technologies. Recommendations focus on integrating global best practices, strengthening regulatory mechanisms, and fostering consumer awareness for a more sustainable fashion future. Keywords: Air Pollution; Carbon Footprint; Fast Fashion; Regulatory Frameworks; Textile Industry; Water Pollution.
I. INTRODUCTION
Fast fashion is the quick production of low-cost, fashionable clothing that rapidly flows from the catwalk to the stores. The Indian fast fashion market has expanded quickly owing to urbanization, rising disposable income, and social media influence. Foreign chains such as Zara and H&M, as well as Indian retailers, have capitalized on the desire for cheap, fashionable clothing. The popularity of online shopping and fashion bloggers has also increased consumer demand. This growth, though, comes with environmental issues like overexploitation of resources and poor waste management. The swift growth in the textile industry has increased water and air pollution, making sustainable practices necessary. Research Objectives and Methodology This study intends to evaluate the environment effects of fast fashion, highlighting water consumption, carbon footprint, and textile wastes.
It is also intended to realize the rapid growth of fast fashion in India and investigate discrepancies in environmental rules. The research will investigate sustainability measures and estimate the level of awareness among customers for sustainable clothing. A mixed method will be employed involving surveys to gather consumer information and secondary data from scholarly sources and reports will be examined to offer an in-depth understanding. Significance of the Study This research is important as it sheds light on the environmental cost of fast fashion, especially in India. It aims to bridge the gap between existing policies and sustainable practices by tackling legal and regulatory loopholes. The results will help governments improve environmental law and promote the garment industry towards adopting sustainable practices.
In addition, by improving consumer awareness, the research promotes ethical fashion choices that enhance environmental sustainability.
II. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FAST FASHION
Water Usage and Pollution in Textile Production The fast fashion industry has emerged as a leading environmental concern, primarily due to its massive water usage and pollution caused by textile production, using approximately 79 trillion liters of water annually. In 2015 alone, textile production had utilized up to 79 billion cubic
meters of water, primarily on cotton cultivation and wet textile production processes such as bleaching, dyeing, and finishing. The most water-hungry of all the natural fibers, cotton consumes a lot of this water. It requires nearly 2,700 liters of water to make one T-shirt made of cotton and approximately 7,000 liters to create one pair of jeans. The largest contributor to this massive water consumption is the huge amount of irrigation needed for cotton cultivation. Studies indicate that cotton growth alone accounts for 88-92% of the total water footprint in garment production. Furthermore, the environmental burden of cotton cultivation is exacerbated by the fact that 44% of the cotton is exported, thus much of the domestic water shortage is indirectly generated by foreign demand.
One instance of this is the Aral Sea's depletion, where 20% of water loss was due to cotton consumption in the EU1(Niinimäki et al. , 2020). In addition, the fashion industry is a major source of industrial water pollution, and an estimated 20% of worldwide industrial water pollution comes from textile dyeing and treatment (Costa et al. , 2020). Hazardous pollutants, such as heavy metals and toxic dyes, are released into water bodies by chemical-intensive processes employed in textile manufacturing. 2 In India, where the fashion supply chain is highly concentrated, the environmental harm is very significant whereby they release Wastewater from factories of textiles, usually untreated or inadequately treated, that pollutes local water sources such as rivers and groundwater systems. 3Other than cotton, synthetic fibers also play a major role in polluting water.
Although their water consumption in their manufacturing process is relatively lower which is for about 50-100 liters per kilogram of material, the emission of microplastics upon being washed off contributes to a long-term environmental risk meaning that it is responsible for approximately 35% (190,000 tonnes per year) of oceanic primary microplastic pollution (Niinimäki et al. , 2020). 4
2.2 Carbon Footprint and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The fashion sector, and specifically fast fashion, is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers in the world. The industry has a high carbon footprint, and fast fashion trends perpetuate the 1 Niinimäki et al., The Environmental Price of Fast Fashion, 1 Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 189, 191 (2020), available at https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9
2 Chapagain et al., The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption, available at
https://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/multimediahub/Chapagain_et_al_2006_cotton_2.pdf (last visited Apr. 4, 2025)
3 Environmental Justice Foundation, Cotton Production and Water Insecurity, available at
https://ejfoundation.org/resources/downloads/EJF_Aral_report_cotton_net_ok.pdf (last visited Apr. 4, 2025)
4 Supra 1
mass destruction of the environment. This does not only take place while manufacturing but across the supply chain of a garment from production through transportation and sale to landfills dumping. The carbon cost of fast fashion is enormous, and the industry alone is responsible for approximately 10% of total greenhouses gases globally, producing approximately 1. 7 million tons of CO2 per year. 5 The system of fast fashion, wherein largescale production and rapid consumption take precedence, dramatically raises carbon levels, as it relies on the production of large quantities of clothes to cope with changing styles. The carbon footprint of fast fashion is particularly significant due to the energy used in the production of clothing. A case in point, the carbon footprint of one wear of jeans under the fast fashion regime has been approximated at 2.
50 kgCO2e and is 11 times higher than traditional fashion consumption. 6 Jeans production and international shipping account for a whopping 91% of the footprint. Textile manufacturing processes like spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing take a lot of fossil fuel energy, and it directly adds to the emissions of CO2. 7 Petrochemicals, from which most of the synthetic fibers in fast fashion are derived, carry a massive carbon footprint. 8 Further, the industry’s global supply chain relies on transporting raw materials and finished garments across long distances. Typically, raw materials are sourced from countries like India, China, Bangladesh, and Vietnam, while the finished products are shipped to consumer markets in Europe and the USA.
Frequent shipments are necessary to maintain the rapid inventory turnover characteristic of fast fashion, and the use of air freight, maritime shipping, and road transport significantly increases the carbon footprint. The transportation process also involves extensive use of packaging materials, which not only increases waste but also contributes to emissions during both production and disposal. (Matuszak-Flejszman et al. , 2020). 9 Additionally, the global supply chain of the industry depends on long-distance transportation of raw materials and finished clothing. Raw materials tend to be exported from countries such as India, China, Bangladesh, and Vietnam, while finished goods are imported to consumer markets in Europe and the USA. There are repeated deliveries to ensure high inventory 5 Andreadakis & Owusu-Wiredu, The Environmental Price of Fast Fashion, 1 Nat. Rev. Earth Environ.
189, 191 (2020), available at https://www. nature. com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9. 6 Ya Zhou et al. , The Carbon Footprint of Fast Fashion Jeans, Guangdong Univ. Tech. (2024), available at https://pearlsmagazine. com/en/what-is-the-real-impact-of-fast-fashion-jeans/ (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
7 Supra 5
8 McCullogh, The Impact of Rayon and Viscose Production on Forests, World Forest Review (2014), available at https://www.worldforestreview.com/articles/mccullogh-impact-rayon-viscose-production-on-forests (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 9 Matuszak-Flejszman et al., Sustainability and Circularity in the Textile Value Chain, Front. Environ. Sci. (2020), available at https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2022.973102/full (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
turnover, which is a feature of fast fashion, and air freight, sea transport, and overland transport add a considerable amount of carbon emissions. The transportation process also makes heavy use of packaging materials, which not only produces more waste but also adds to emissions during production and ending of life. (Matuszak-Flejszman et al. , 2020). 10 Consumer behavior is another significant factor that contributes to the carbon footprint, and that is the fast fashion cycle of frequent buys and quick discard. With new trends constantly emerging and low prices, consumers can't help but buy more frequently, which resulted in a 36% decline in clothing use between 2003 and 2018. 11 Most consumers, especially young women, regard clothes as "old" after being worn once or twice.
This mindset results in higher production to satisfy demand, and the reduced lifespan of clothing leads to greater waste, which usually finds its way into landfills. Abandoned fast fashion products that are not recycled or reused generate CO2 emissions during decomposition or burning, releasing toxic gases into the environment. 12 The carbon footprint of the fast fashion sector continues to be high. By 2025, the sector will account for 8-10% of all carbon emissions worldwide, beating the combined total of all international flights and shipping. 13 Textile Waste and Landfill Issues The magnitude of textile waste presents serious environmental issues such as land pollution, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions resulting from decay processes. Textile waste is used to describe clothing, fabrics, and other textile products that are unwanted.
Nielsen and Schmidt (2014) state that waste can be categorized by physical state (solid, liquid, gas), source (domestic, commercial, industrial), and degree of danger (hazardous or non-hazardous). 14 Textile waste is mostly included in municipal solid waste, comprising household and business textile waste. The globe produces around 7–10 billion tonnes of waste every year, out of which
2 billion tonnes are categorized as municipal solid waste (International Solid Waste
10 Ibid
11 Tasha Lewis, Textile Waste and Consumer Behavior in Fast Fashion, Cornell Univ., Dept. Fiber Sci., available at https://www.roadrunnerwm.com/blog/textile-waste-environmental-crisis (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 12 Optoro Report, Environmental Impact of Online Returns in the US, available at https://earth.org/statisticsabout-fast-fashion-waste/ (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 13 Berg et al., The Textile Industry’s Contribution to Climate Change, Ellen MacArthur Found. (2017), available at https://www.macarthurfoundation.org/articles/textile-industry-contribution-climate-change/ (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
14 Nielsen & Schmidt, Waste Management, 2014, available at
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734242X20947158 (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
Association, 2015). 15 One of the primary causes of the rise in textile waste is the consumer culture fostered by the fast fashion business, where constant new collections lead to customers buying more clothes than they need. This practice leads to high amounts of production and post-consumer fiber waste 16 (Lu & Hamouda, 2014). It has been estimated that world fiber usage may be 110 million tonnes by 2020, representing double the average yearly textile demand from 7 to 13 kg per capita (Voncina, 2016). 17 Production waste is created in the manufacturing process of textiles and consists of fibers, yarns, fabric pieces, and faulty garments. The primary sources are textile mills, fiber manufacturers, and apparel producers 18(Domina & Koch, 1997).
The majority of production waste is produced from fabric cut-offs, faulty rolls, and selvage, which is normally caused by mistakes when cutting, dyeing, or fabric defects. These wastes, if not well handled, find their way into landfills, posing serious environmental problems 19(Silva, 2012). Pre-consumer waste is made up of unused clothing or materials that never find their way into the consumer market because of design defects, damage, or improper production. This type of waste usually finds its way into outlet stores, charity donations, or straight into landfills. For example, H&M retails these defective products in outlet shops, whereas Marks & Spencer distributes them to charity 20(Gardetti & Torres, 2013). Nonetheless, in spite of resale, a significant portion of this waste finds its way to landfill sites, contributing to municipal waste.
Post-consumer waste includes clothing that consumers discard, usually due to wear, tear, or loss of fashion appeal. As a result of the fast fashion system, the clothing life cycle has drastically decreased, with the majority of clothing lasting about two years before being discarded21 (Hawley, 2006). In developed 15 Int’l Solid Waste Ass’n, Global Waste Report, 2015, available at https://www. uncclearn. org/wpcontent/uploads/library/unep23092015. pdf (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 16Lu J. J. & Hamouda H. , Current Status of Fiber Waste Recycling and Its Future, 878 Adv. Mater. Res. 122 (2014), available at https://journals. sagepub. com/doi/full/10. 1177/24723444231188342 (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
17 Voncina, Fiber Usage Trends, RMZ-Materials and Geoenvironment, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 41–54 (2012),
available at https://patents.google.com/patent/EP3075875A1/de (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 18 Tanya Domina & Kathy Koch, The Textile Waste Lifecycle, 15 Clothing & Textiles Res. J. 96 (1997), available at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0887302X9701500204 (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
19 Silva, Textile Waste Management, J. Environ. vol. 34, pp. 395–400 (2012), available at
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0734242X18819277 (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
20 Miguel Ángel Gardetti & Ana Laura Torres, Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles: Values, Design,
Production and Consumption (Greenleaf Publ’g Ltd., Sheffield, UK, 2013), available at https://books.google.com/books/about/Sustainability_in_Fashion_and_Textiles.html?id=o52XmAEACAAJ (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
21 Jana Hawley, Digging for Diamonds: A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Reclaimed Textile
Products, 24 Clothing & Textiles Res. J. 262–275 (2006), available at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0887302X9701500204?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.6 (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
nations, the rate of disposal is high, with 10. 5 million tonnes annually in the USA, 350,000 tonnes in the UK, and 287,000 tonnes in Turkey 22(Karaosman et al. , 2017). The fast pace of consumption induced by fast fashion retailers like Zara, H&M, and Topshop has caused an overproduction and wastage issue, in which the customers buy and discard products at regular intervals because of affordable prices and changing fashion trends 23(Lee, 2017). Landfilling is still the least preferred waste management technique owing to its environmental impacts. Man-made fibres like polyester and nylon take 200 years to biodegrade, whereas natural fibres like wool will biodegrade more quickly but release methane, a powerful greenhouse gas 24(Sotayo et al. , 2015). In the USA alone, 85% of post-consumer textile waste goes into landfills 25(Lee, 2017).
Additionally, the breakdown of clothing in landfills emits toxic chemicals and dyes into the ground and groundwater, which pose serious environmental hazards. For instance, synthetic fabrics contribute to microplastic pollution, with 35% of ocean microplastics coming from textile waste26 (Shirvanimoghaddam et al. , 2022).
IV. CASE STUDIES
In India, the city of Tiruppur in Tamil Nadu is known as the "Knitwear Capital of India," producing approximately 90% of India’s cotton knitwear exports. However, this economic success has come at an environmental cost. The intensive textile production processes have led to severe water pollution, primarily due to the discharge of untreated effluents containing dyes, chemicals, and heavy metals into the Noyyal River. As a result, the river water became heavily contaminated, making it unsuitable for both irrigation and human consumption. The pollution also led to agricultural losses for farmers who depended on the river. In response, the Madras High Court intervened in 2011, ordering the closure of dyeing units until they installed Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) systems. This legal enforcement prompted many factories to establish 22 Hakan Karaosman et al.
, Fast Fashion Impacts on Waste, presented at Int’l Conf. on Solid Wastes, Hong Kong, China, May 19–23, 2015, available at https://cgspace. cgiar. org/items/ec505661-2e01-4fea-87b8- 797cf64ab232 (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 23 Lee S. E. , Consumer Behavior in Fast Fashion, J. Textile & Apparel Tech. vol. 9(3), pp. 31–45 (2017), available at https://journals. sagepub. com/doi/full/10. 1177/0734242X241257093? icid=int. sj-full-text. citingarticles. 5 (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 24 Sotayo et al. , Environmental Impacts of Textile Landfills, presented at Int’l Conf. , Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ. , May 19–23, Hong Kong SAR (2015), available at https://pmc. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/articles/PMC11364605/ (last visited Apr. 4, 2025). 25Supra 23 26 Shirvanimoghaddam et al. , Microplastic Pollution from Textiles: A Review of Sustainability Challenges, J Environ. vol. XXVIII(3), pp.
XX–XX81 (2022), available at https://ourworldindata. org/plastic-pollution (last visited Apr. 4, 2025).
effluent treatment plants, significantly reducing the level of water pollution in the area. 27 The Tiruppur case exemplifies how stringent legal measures can drive industries to adopt sustainable practices, particularly in regions heavily affected by industrial pollution. Globally, the city of Xintang in Guangdong Province, China, is often referred to as the "Denim Capital of the World. " Producing approximately 300 million pairs of jeans releases pollutants, worsening air quality. To address this, some units have started adopting solar-powered machinery and utilizing biofuels derived from agricultural waste, thereby cutting down on carbon emissions. This case highlights the paradox of textile recycling: while beneficial for waste reduction, it can still have a negative environmental impact if not managed with cleaner technologies.
28 Internationally, Bangladesh, as a major global fast fashion production hub, also grapples with carbon emissions from its garment manufacturing sector. Factories in Dhaka and other urban centers primarily use coal and natural gas, significantly contributing to the country’s annually, the industry here has similarly faced criticism for its environmental impact. The denim manufacturing process, which requires significant water usage and chemical treatments, led to the contamination of the Pearl River. Investigations revealed high levels of toxic substances, including cadmium and lead, which not only polluted the water but also posed severe health risks to the local community. Residents reported skin and respiratory problems as a consequence of exposure to the polluted water.
In response to increasing environmental scrutiny, the Chinese government mandated the installation of water treatment plants and regulated the use of harmful chemicals. This intervention demonstrated the necessity of both industrial accountability and government regulation to mitigate environmental harm. The carbon footprint associated with fast fashion is substantial, primarily due to energy-intensive production processes and the use of fossil fuels. In India, the city of Panipat, known for being the "Recycling Hub of India," faces significant environmental challenges despite its focus on textile recycling. The recycling processes, while beneficial in reducing textile waste, are energy-intensive, often relying on coal and natural gas to power machinery. This contributes to high levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and particulate pollution.
Moreover, the practice 27 Noyyal River Ayacutdars Protection Ass’n v. S. Ramasundaram, Contempt Petitions Nos. 1013 & 1068 of
2010 (Madras H.C. Dec. 22, 2006), available at
https://www.casemine.com/judgement/in/56ea7690607dba36e9455d7d
28 Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China art. 3 (2014), available at
https://greenaccess.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Environmental-Protection-Law-of-the- Peoples-Republic-of-hina-2014-Revision.pdf
of burning non-recyclable textiles has a carbon footprint. The heavy reliance on non-renewable energy sources has led to deteriorating air quality and increased health risks for the workforce. 29 A report revealed that the textile sector accounts for about 15% of Bangladesh’s total CO2 emissions. In response, some factories have begun to integrate solar panels and energy-efficient lighting systems, partly motivated by international pressure from brands seeking greener supply chains. This shift towards renewable energy is a promising development, but widespread adoption remains a challenge due to high initial costs and technical barriers. Textile waste management poses a significant challenge for the fast fashion industry, particularly in urban centers. In Delhi, India, the rapid growth of fashion retail and manufacturing has led to the accumulation of vast amounts of textile waste.
Approximately 80,000 tonnes of textile waste are generated annually, much of which ends up in major landfill sites like Bhalswa and Ghazipur. These landfills are overwhelmed, leading to leachate contamination and the emission of methane gas, a potent greenhouse gas. Efforts to address the waste problem include initiatives by local NGOs that collect textile waste for upcycling. Some brands, such as FabIndia, have partnered with artisans to convert textile scraps into handicrafts and garments, thereby reducing landfill pressure and creating sustainable livelihoods. Despite these efforts, the city continues to face challenges in managing the volume of waste generated. 30 On a global scale, H&M’s Garment Collection Initiative offers an interesting approach to textile waste reduction.
In response to mounting criticism over its contribution to textile waste, H&M launched a program where consumers can return old clothes to any store location. The collected textiles are sorted into categories for reuse, upcycling, or recycling. Since the initiative's inception, H&M has collected over 29,000 tonnes of textiles worldwide. 31 While this program represents a positive step towards reducing waste, critics argue that it falls short of addressing the fundamental issue of overproduction and consumerism inherent in the fast fashion model. Nonetheless, this case demonstrates the potential for brand-led initiatives to promote sustainability, albeit within the constraints of a high-turnover fashion cycle. 29 The Future of Indian Textiles: A Circular Economy Perspective, Fibre2Fashion (Feb. 28, 2025), available at https://www. fibre2fashion.
com/industry-article/10322/the-future-of-indian-textiles-a-circular-economyperspective3. 30 Annual Report 2021-2022 on Implementation of Solid Waste Management Rules, Central Pollution Control Board (2022), available at https://cpcb. nic. in/uploads/MSW/MSW_AnnualReport_2021-22. pdf
31 H&M Group’s Sustainability Performance Report (2023), available at
https://sustainabilitymag.com/articles/h-m-group-prioritises-sourcing-in-sustainability-commitments
V. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS GOVERNING THE FASHION INDUSTRY IN INDIA &
ITS COMPARISON TO INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORKS
India, as one of the largest textile producers, faces unique challenges in managing the environmental impacts associated with fashion production. While there are several environmental laws in place in India, there remains a gap between policy and practice, particularly when compared to international standards. To bridge this gap, it is crucial to evaluate the existing legal framework, identify areas where international practices can be adopted, and address the shortcomings that hinder effective regulation of the fast fashion sector. India's primary legislation concerning environmental protection is the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which was enacted to provide for the protection and improvement of the environment. It grants the central government the authority to regulate and control the discharge of pollutants from industries, including textile manufacturing units.
The act empowers the government to set emission standards for environmental pollutants from various sources, specifically mentioning that different standards can be prescribed based on the quality or composition of emissions. Under Section 3, the government can establish standards for the discharge of environmental pollutants from textile units, including those involved in dyeing, bleaching, and finishing processes. This is particularly relevant as these processes often release hazardous chemicals into water bodies. 32 Further, Section 7 explicitly prohibits textile companies from discharging environmental pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the government. This provision is crucial for regulating effluents and emissions from textile manufacturing units, especially those dealing with dyeing and treatment processes.
33 Additionally, Section 8 mandates that any handling of hazardous substances, such as dyes and chemical solvents used in textile processing, must comply with prescribed procedural safeguards. 34 Violations of these provisions attract penalties under Section 15, which can include imprisonment for up to five years and fines that may extend to one lakh rupees, with additional daily fines for continued non-compliance. 35 Despite this comprehensive framework, enforcement remains a critical issue. In practice, many textile manufacturing units fail to
32 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, No. 29 of 1986, § 3 (India), available at
https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/ep_act_1986.pdf.
33 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, No. 29 of 1986, § 7 (India), available at
https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/ep_act_1986.pdf.
34 he Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, No. 29 of 1986, § 8 (India), available at
https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/ep_act_1986.pdf.
35 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, No. 29 of 1986, § 15 (India), available at
https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/ep_act_1986.pdf.
comply with the standards, leading to unchecked pollution in key textile hubs like Tiruppur and Ludhiana. Furthermore, while the act addresses pollution control broadly, it lacks specific provisions tailored to the textile and fashion industry, leaving a regulatory gap that allows some industries to evade strict compliance. 36 One of the most significant environmental challenges associated with the fashion industry is water pollution, primarily due to textile dyeing and treatment processes. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was enacted to prevent and control water pollution by setting standards for wastewater discharge from industries. The act empowers State Pollution Control Boards to enforce pollution control measures and monitor effluent discharge from textile units.
According to Section 24, it prohibits the disposal of polluting matter into streams, wells, or sewers without consent from the relevant State Board. In particular, textile dyeing units, which often use large volumes of water and release toxic effluents, must adhere to these regulations. 37Moreover, Section 41 states that any failure to comply with the Board’s directions regarding water pollution can result in imprisonment for a term that may extend to six years, along with a fine. 38 Despite this, violations remain prevalent. For example, the dyeing units in Tiruppur were notorious for discharging untreated effluents into the Noyyal River, resulting in severe ecological damage.
Although legal actions, such as the 2011 Madras High Court order mandating Zero Liquid Discharge systems, led to significant improvements, many small-scale industries continue to bypass regulations due to the high costs of implementing wastewater treatment technology. 39 Internationally, countries like China have implemented more rigorous controls on industrial wastewater through continuous monitoring systems and public reporting of pollution data, which could be adopted in India to enhance transparency and compliance. 40 Managing textile 36Standards for Discharge of Effluents from Textile Industry - Corpseed (2025), available at https://www. corpseed. com/knowledge-centre/standard-for-discharge-of-effluents-from-textile-industry. 37The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, § 24 (India), available at http://www. indiaenvironmentportal. org.
in/content/414885/revised-modified-direction-under-section-181b-ofthe-water-prevention-and-control-of-pollutionact-1974-to-textiles-units-and-clusters/.
38 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, § 41 (India), available at
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/414885/revised-modified-direction-under-section-181b-ofthe-water-prevention-and-control-of-pollutionact-1974-to-textiles-units-and-clusters 39 Charter for Water Recycling & Pollution Prevention in Textile Industry - CPCB (2022), available at https://cpcb.nic.in/ngrba/charter_textile.pdf).
40 Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China art. 3 (2014), available at
https://greenaccess.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Environmental-Protection-Law-of-the- Peoples-Republic-of-China-2014-Revision.pdf), which could be adopted in India to enhance transparency and compliance.
waste is another pressing issue, exacerbated by the fast fashion model that encourages disposable clothing. The Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 2016 regulate the management and disposal of hazardous wastes, including certain chemicals used in textile processing41. Rule 3(17)42 specifically defines hazardous waste to include by-products and residues from textile manufacturing that contain hazardous chemicals.43 Textile units are required to obtain authorization from the State Pollution Control Board to manage hazardous waste under Rule
544. Furthermore, Rule 8 mandates that every occupier handling hazardous waste must follow
safe handling, storage, and disposal practices45. However, the rules do not comprehensively address textile waste generated from discarded garments or production processes. Unlike the European Union’s Waste Framework Directive, which explicitly categorizes textile waste and mandates recovery and recycling, Indian regulations primarily focus on hazardous substances without adequately covering the broader spectrum of textile waste. Adopting elements from the EU model, such as mandatory waste categorization and recycling targets, could significantly improve waste management practices within the fashion sector of India. 46 One promising international approach is the concept of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which mandates that manufacturers take responsibility for the entire lifecycle of their products, including disposal and recycling.
In India, EPR has primarily been applied to electronic waste and plastics, but its application to textiles remains limited. In contrast, the French Law on Circular Economy (2020)47 specifically applies EPR to the fashion industry, requiring brands to manage the end-of-life phase of their products. 48 Additionally, the EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC)49 includes textiles within its scope and mandates that member states promote waste prevention, reuse, and recycling. Integrating EPR policies with the existing
41 Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, Gazette of India,
Extraordinary, Part II, sec. 3(ii) (Mar. 4, 2016). 42 Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, Rule 3(17), Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, sec. 3(ii) (Mar. 4, 2016).
43 Hazardous Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules & Toxic Wastes - PMFIAS (2023), available at
https://www.pmfias.com/hazardous-wastes-rules-2016/). 44 Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, Rule 5, Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, sec. 3(ii) (Mar. 4, 2016). 45 Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, Rule 8, Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, sec. 3(ii) (Mar. 4, 2016).F
46 Management of Used & Waste Textiles in Europe’s Circular Economy - EEA (2024), available at
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/management-of-used-and-waste-textiles), 47 Loi n° 2020-105 du 10 février 2020 relative à la lutte contre le gaspillage et à l'économie circulaire [Law No. 2020-105 of February 10, 2020 on combating waste and the circular economy], Journal Officiel de la République Française [J.O.] [Official Gazette of France], Feb. 11, 2020. 48 llen MacArthur Foundation (2024), available at https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/epr-for-textiles-infrance)—cou 49 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives, 2008 O.J. (L 312) 3.
Hazardous Waste Management Rules could create a more robust framework for managing textile waste in a sustainable manner in India. Internationally, the Paris Agreement (2015)50 sets global targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which indirectly impact the textile industry due to the sector’s significant carbon footprint. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001)51 mandates the elimination or reduction of the release of harmful chemicals, including those commonly used in textile processing. Moreover, the Basel Convention (1989)52 regulates the transboundary movement of hazardous waste, including textile waste, while the EU Circular Economy Action Plan (2020)53 specifically promotes textile recycling and sustainable fashion practices.
The International Day of Zero Waste 202554, promoted by the UN General Assembly, emphasizes reducing textile waste and adopting circular fashion practices. It highlights the environmental cost of textile waste, promoting policies that reduce overproduction and increase recycling rates. To bridge the gap between the existing legal framework and sustainable practices in India’s fashion industry, it is essential to strengthen enforcement mechanisms for existing environmental laws, incorporate international best practices into national legislation, and promote voluntary compliance through global sustainability initiatives.
Aligning India’s legal standards with global best practices, such as adopting mandatory EPR for textiles and incorporating circular economy principles from the EU framework, while fostering industry participation in voluntary charters, would pave the way for a more sustainable and responsible fashion industry.
VI. CHALLENGES AND GAPS IN REGULATION
One of the primary challenges in the fast fashion industry is the lack of effective enforcement of sustainable practices. Even when companies are aware of environmental regulations and the need for sustainable practices, many fail to implement them effectively. A study on sustainable garment manufacturing in India (2023) identified that most small and medium enterprises (SMEs) lack the infrastructure and financial capability to adopt sustainable practices. Unlike larger corporations that can afford advanced wastewater treatment and emission control technologies, smaller units continue to operate with outdated processes. This discrepancy 50 Paris Agreement to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Dec. 12, 2015, T.I.A.S. No. 16-1104.
51 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, May 22, 2001, 2256 U.N.T.S. 119.
52 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, Mar. 22, 1989, 1673 U.N.T.S. 57.
53 European Commission, Circular Economy Action Plan: For a Cleaner and More Competitive Europe, COM
(2020) 98 final (Mar. 11, 2020).
54 G.A. Res. 76/276, International Day of Zero Waste (Dec. 14, 2022).
between large and small enterprises creates a significant gap in achieving holistic sustainability within the fashion sector. 55 Another pressing issue is the prevalence of greenwashing in the fashion industry. Many brands claim to be sustainable without implementing substantial changes in their production processes. A 2024 study on the impact of greenwashing on ESG ratings in the apparel industry revealed that many brands exaggerate their environmental efforts to maintain a positive brand image. The study evaluated the ESG scores of 30 prominent fashion brands and found no consistent link between their environmental claims and actual practices. 56 This misleading branding not only confuses consumers but also allows noncompliant brands to avoid accountability.
As a result, genuinely sustainable brands face challenges in standing out, leading to consumer skepticism and reduced trust in sustainability claims. 57 Consumer behaviour further complicates the transition to sustainable fashion. Despite growing awareness, fast fashion continues to dominate the market due to its affordability and accessibility. A recent survey revealed that consumers often choose low-cost, trendy apparel over sustainable alternatives, especially in developing economies like India. The concept of disposable fashion remains deeply ingrained, leading to increased textile waste and pressure on natural resources. Unlike countries where consumer consciousness drives change (such as in parts of Europe), Indian consumers still prioritize cost over environmental impact.
58Bridging this gap requires not only awareness campaigns but also making sustainable fashion economically viable and accessible. From a production perspective, the fast fashion model inherently contradicts sustainability. Rapid turnover and mass production result in significant textile waste, much of which is non-recyclable or poorly managed. A 2022 study on sustainable fashion practices pointed out that most fashion brands lack long-term waste management strategies, focusing instead on short-term gains. The circular economy model, which encourages recycling and reuse, is still in its nascent stage within the Indian fashion industry. In contrast, countries like Sweden have successfully integrated textile recycling within municipal waste management systems, significantly reducing landfill contribution from the fashion sector.
55 Sustainable Fashion in India: Navigating Challenges, Unveiling Solutions, and Unlocking Opportunities for Entrepreneurs, JETIR2501004 (2025), available at https://www. jetir. org/papers/JETIR2501004. pdf. 56 The Impact of Greenwashing on ESG in the Apparel Industry, University of Oulu Repository (2024), available at https://oulurepo. oulu. fi/handle/10024/53022. 57 Rethinking Recycling and Re-Loving: India's Circular Fashion Economy, Mongabay India (2022), available at https://india. mongabay. com/2022/08/rethinking-recycling-and-re-loving-a-peek-into-indias-circular-fashioneconomy/. 58 Eco-Friendly Elegance: Navigating the Landscape of Sustainable Fashion in India, Sustainable Brands Journal (2024), available at https://thesustainablebrandsjournal. com/sustainable-fashion-india/.
Another major challenge is the complexity of the global supply chain. The fashion industry relies on extensive networks that span across countries, making it difficult to enforce uniform sustainability standards. Raw materials might be sourced from one country, processed in another, and sold in a third. This fragmentation leads to challenges in tracking the environmental impact at each stage of the supply chain. Studies indicate that brands often lack visibility into the environmental practices of their suppliers, especially when dealing with subcontractors and third-party manufacturers. 59 Consequently, even if a brand commits to sustainability, the lack of control over the entire supply chain weakens these efforts. The fashion industry also struggles with technological adaptation to sustainable practices.
While innovative technologies for sustainable textile processing exist, their adoption remains limited due to high costs and lack of technical know-how. In developed countries, government incentives and subsidies make it feasible for companies to invest in green technologies. In India, however, limited support and financial assistance make it challenging for small and medium-sized enterprises to modernize their processes. This technological gap results in continued use of outdated, environmentally harmful methods, particularly in textile dyeing and processing. 60 The International Day of Zero Waste 2025 emphasizes reducing waste through circular fashion practices. However, in India, there is limited public and corporate engagement in circular initiatives. While global movements encourage recycling and upcycling, Indian fashion brands have been slow to adopt these practices at scale.
For example, while some international brands have implemented take-back schemes and garment recycling initiatives, similar practices are not widely observed among Indian manufacturers. 61 Addressing this gap requires both policy incentives and a shift in corporate attitudes towards long-term environmental stewardship. Furthermore, the fashion industry’s carbon footprint remains a critical issue. Despite global calls to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the fashion sector continues to be a significant contributor. The Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action, launched at COP24, calls for reducing emissions across the supply chain, but only a few Indian brands have pledged their commitment. 62A 2024 global report on climate actions 59 Environmental Sustainability in the Fashion Industry, Geneva Environment Network (2025), available at https://www. genevaenvironmentnetwork.
org/resources/updates/sustainable-fashion/. 60 Sunny Prospects for Decarbonizing MSMEs in India’s Fashion Industry, Intellecap (2025), available at https://www. intellecap. com/sunny-prospects-for-decarbonizing-msmes-in-indias-fashion-industry/.
61 Sustainable Fashion to Take Centre Stage on Zero-Waste Day, UNEP (2025), available at
https://www.unep.org/technical-highlight/sustainable-fashion-take-centre.
62 UNFCCC Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action (2018), available at
https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Industry%20Charter%20%20Fashion%20and%20Climate%20Acti on%20-%2022102018.pdf.
in fashion revealed that most Indian textile manufacturers lack concrete emission reduction targets, primarily due to the high costs of adopting renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies. The global perception of sustainable fashion often differs from local realities in developing countries. In India, where socio-economic challenges coexist with environmental concerns, brands often prioritize cost efficiency over sustainability. While international frameworks like the EU Circular Economy Action Plan (2020) encourage comprehensive waste management and resource efficiency, their direct applicability in India is limited without significant adaptation to local economic conditions.
VII. SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
To understand the consumer perspective on fast fashion and its environmental impact, a survey was conducted with the general public. The survey targeted 60 participants aged between 20 and 30, a demographic known for frequent fashion consumption, typically on a monthly basis. Although the sample size is relatively small, it provides valuable insights into the attitudes and behaviors of young consumers who are significant drivers of fast fashion trends. The survey aims to assess awareness of environmental issues related to fashion, preferences for sustainable practices, and opinions on regulatory measures. Figure 1 illustrates the frequency with which consumers purchase fast fashion items. Figure 1 illustrates that 60% of participants purchase fast fashion items on a monthly basis, a substantial frequency in today’s context.
This high consumption rate contributes significantly to environmental issues, including the expansion of landfills, which directly leads to increased carbon emissions. Furthermore, the continuous cycle of demand and supply necessitates relentless production, which in turn exacerbates water and air pollution.
Figure 2 depicts the level of consumer awareness regarding the environmental laws that regulate the fast fashion industry. Figure 2 indicates that 70% of participants are unaware of the existing laws in India that regulate the fashion and textile industry. This lack of awareness suggests that consumers do not actively consider the environmental impact of their clothing choices or whether the brands they purchase from are compliant with relevant regulations and mandates. Figure 3 shows consumers' preferred ways to reduce fast fashion's environmental impact. Figure 3 reveals that 70% of participants believe that introducing stricter regulations specifically targeting the fashion and textile industry is crucial and urgently needed to mitigate the environmental impact of fast fashion. This is followed by 38.
3% of respondents advocating for the promotion of sustainable fashion practices, while 33. 3% emphasize the importance of increasing consumer awareness. Additionally, another 33. 3% of participants support recycling and upcycling initiatives as a viable solution.
VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
As awareness of these impacts grows, there is an increasing focus on sustainable alternatives and innovative practices that can mitigate the damage caused by the fashion and textile sector. This chapter discusses the potential of promoting a circular economy, leveraging technological
innovations, enhancing recycling and upcycling practices, learning from global sustainable fashion brands, and implementing policy recommendations to foster eco-friendly fashion. One of the most promising approaches to mitigating the environmental impact of fast fashion is promoting a circular economy. Unlike the traditional linear model of "take, make, dispose," the circular economy emphasizes keeping resources in use for as long as possible through reuse, repair, remanufacture, and recycling. In the context of fashion, this involves designing clothes with longevity in mind, enabling easy repair and recycling, and minimizing waste during production. Brands like Patagonia and Stella McCartney have already adopted circular principles by offering repair services and using recycled materials.
Implementing circular practices not only reduces textile waste but also conserves resources and lowers carbon emissions. In India, circular fashion is still in its nascent stage, but initiatives like sustainable clothing lines and take-back programs are emerging. For instance, some Indian designers are increasingly using organic and recycled fabrics, reflecting a gradual shift towards sustainable practices. Technological innovations play a vital role in transforming the fashion industry into a more sustainable sector. Advanced fabric technologies, such as bio-fabrication and the use of biodegradable materials, are paving the way for more environmentally friendly textiles. Innovations like 3D knitting minimize waste during garment production, while digital pattern making reduces fabric scraps.
Furthermore, the development of eco-friendly dyes and waterless dyeing techniques addresses the critical issue of water pollution in textile manufacturing. Technologies like blockchain are also being utilized to increase transparency and traceability within the supply chain, helping consumers make more informed choices about sustainable fashion. In India, adopting such technologies remains a challenge due to the high costs involved, but gradual integration into mainstream manufacturing could significantly reduce the environmental footprint of fashion production. Recycling and upcycling are crucial components in minimizing textile waste, given the vast quantities of discarded clothing that end up in landfills. Recycling involves breaking down materials to create new fabrics, while upcycling transforms old or unused garments into new, higher-quality items.
Global brands like H&M and Zara have introduced take-back schemes to collect worn-out clothes for recycling. In India, while formal textile recycling is limited, traditional practices of repurposing old clothes still exist, particularly in rural areas. Upcycling initiatives, led by independent designers and NGOs, have shown promise in reducing textile waste. Integrating modern recycling techniques with traditional upcycling practices could enhance the sustainability of
fashion in India. However, scaling these efforts requires government incentives and consumer willingness to participate in sustainable consumption. Learning from global sustainable fashion brands can provide valuable insights for the Indian fashion sector. Brands such as Eileen Fisher and Levi’s have embraced sustainable fashion by focusing on durability, responsible sourcing, and customer engagement. These companies invest in sustainable supply chains, prioritize natural and recycled materials, and actively involve consumers in sustainability initiatives. In India, however, only a few brands have taken similar steps, often limited to niche markets. Encouraging mainstream brands to adopt global best practices would require robust policy frameworks and consumer awareness campaigns.
Additionally, collaboration between local artisans and global brands could foster sustainable fashion practices while preserving traditional crafts. To successfully transition to a more sustainable fashion industry, policy recommendations must focus on incentivizing eco-friendly practices, mandating extended producer responsibility, and promoting consumer education. Policies should encourage the use of sustainable materials through tax benefits or subsidies, particularly for small and medium enterprises that may struggle with the financial burden of adopting greener technologies. Moreover, the government could establish clear guidelines for sustainable labeling to combat greenwashing and provide consumers with reliable information. Collaborating with international organizations and adopting successful global models could accelerate the adoption of sustainable practices.
Future research should focus on examining the effectiveness of existing policies, exploring innovative sustainable technologies, and developing scalable circular economy models, particularly in the Indian context. By fostering collaboration between industry stakeholders, policymakers, and researchers, the fast fashion sector can evolve towards greater sustainability and environmental stewardship.