Climate Refugees - The Overlooked Victims Of Climate Change
Author: LawSphereX
Category: Environmental Law
Published:
Updated:
CLIMATE REFUGEES: THE OVERLOOKED VICTIMS OF
CLIMATE CHANGE
Vaishnavi Deshpande, B.B.A. LL.B. (Hons.), SVKM’s NMIMS, Indore
ABSTRACT
The rapidly accelerating climate crisis has brought along large-scale displacement from natural calamities, rise in sea-level, and other climateinduced impacts, thus adding to a new category of "climate refugees. " These people, without legal status and protection under the 1951 Refugee Convention, are exceptionally vulnerable. This article discusses drivers and a comparable scale of climate-induced displacement, the reluctance of developed countries to confront the crisis, and focuses on the role of India as a contributor to and victim of climate change. The specific analyses presented range from the impact of sea-level rise and cyclones on India's extensive coastline and riverbank erosion-for instance, in Assam-to increasing frequency of droughts that triggers rural-to-urban migration.
The article further discusses other humanitarian and policy challenges, including psychological and economic burdens on communities dealing with climate displacement, and profound deficiencies in international policy. It emphasizes the urgency needed in global and national actions against this growing crisis, including granting legal status to climate refugees, scaling up finance for adaptation and mitigation processes, and empowering communities through community-based approaches. The article concludes by reiterating the need for international cooperation, technological innovation, and aggressive reductions in carbon emissions to minimize future displacement and create a more sustainable and equitable future. Keywords: Climate refugee, Displacement, Migration, International Policy, Climate crisis, legal status
Introduction
The intensifying global climate emergency has compelled many people to leave their homes, lost to natural disasters, rising sea levels, and other climate-related issues. These individuals, termed "climate refugees," face very different challenges since they do not have official legal status. Unlike the conventionally protected refugees under the 1951 Refugee Convention, climate refugees are outside the established international legal safeguards. The Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP) estimates that climate events could displace up to 1. 2 billion people1 by 2050, making this group one of the most vulnerable and frequently overlooked victims of climate change. The term "climate refugees" was first used in public debate in 1985 when it was coined by Essam El-Hinnawi, an expert linked to the United Nations Environment Programme.
He defined "environmental refugees" as people who are compelled to leave their homes, either temporarily or permanently, due to significant environmental disruptions—either natural or human-induced—that threaten their lives or significantly alter their quality of life. While "climate refugees" is interchangeably used with "environmental refugees," there is no clarity about the differences between the two in practical application. 2 The definition and legal obstacles to the concept of climate refugees pose a formidable challenge in demanding rights for this group, considering the framework adopted by the Refugee Convention. It has been argued that the declaration of climate change victims as "refugees" would blur the lines set forth by the original 1951 Convention, which was drafted to address specific forms of persecution.
3 The Drivers and Scales of Climate-Induced Displacement Climate displacement originates from both direct and indirect causes. The most imminent concern is the increase in sea levels, which is a very dangerous situation for low-lying coastal areas and islands. For example, by 2050, saltwater intrusion, storm surges, and flooding could displace up to 20 million people in Bangladesh. The Maldives, an island chain with an average 1 UNHCR, https://www. unhcr. org/news/press-releases/unhcr-report-reveals-climate-change-growing-threatpeople-already-fleeingwar#:~:text=Of%20the%20more%20than%20120,heavily%20impacted%20by%20climate%20change (November 2024)
2 Caitlan M. Sussman, A Global Migration Framework Under Water
How Can the International Community Protect Climate Refugees? https://cjil. uchicago. edu/online-archive/global-migration-framework-under-waterhow-can-international-community-protect 3 Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhary, Climate change fueling climate migration https://www. orfonline. org/expertspeak/climate-change-fueling-climatemigration#:~:text=Often%20terms%20such%20as%20%E2%80%9Cenvironmental,environmental%20migrant s%E2%80%9D%20are%20used%20interchangeably. (December 2022) elevation of only 1. 5 meters above sea level, is similarly in danger of complete submersion. In the United States4, the loss of coastal land has brought ruin to many communities, including Isle de Jean Charles in Louisiana, where thousands have been displaced. 5 Added to these are the increasingly frequent and severe weather events—hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones—that contribute to displacement.
A sobering reminder is the case of the hurricanes6 that struck Florida in 2023 and those cyclones hammering Pacific Island nations. 7 Desertification related to prolonged droughts and soil degradation, which threatens the food security of arid regions, especially the families in Sub-Saharan Africa, is forcing the families to abandon their homes. 8 Further, the fights over few valuable resources like water and arable lands increase tensions indirectly in countries such as Burkina Faso, according to a report by the UNEP (2022). Climate disruptions lead to risks of livelihood, pushing affected populations into cities to attain some sense of stability, similar to what occurred with farmers facing droughts in Maharashtra and Rajasthan who moved toward cities in the country of India.
The Global Magnitude of the Crisis Climate refugee crisis represents a deeper and escalating global challenge with far-reaching social, economic, and political implications. Climate-driven displacement—driven by extreme weather events, rises in sea levels, and desertification—impacts millions, thus demanding immediate attention internationally. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the percentage of refugees in 2023 who came from areas highly prone to climate change was above 80%. Areas such as those subject to droughts, floods, and other environmental stressors were directly linked with their negative impacts on food security, the availability of water, and livelihood.
In the absence of immediate action on this front globally, World Bank estimates by 2050 are for climate change displacement of over 143 million people, predominantly within countries—that means disproportionately affecting people in Sub-
4 Carter, J., et al., Coastal Erosion and Displacement in the United States (2022)
5 IPCC, Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low-lying Islands, Coasts and Communities,
https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-4-sea-level-rise-and-implications-for-low-lying-islands-coasts-andcommunities/#:~:text=Rising%20mean%20and%20increasingly%20extreme,permanent%20submergence%20of %20land%20by
6 NOAA, Annual Hurricane Report (2023)
7 Research on past hurricanes aims to reduce future risk,
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/01/250117161225.htm (January 2025)
8 Desertification in Africa and how desertification can affect people in Africa?
https://www. green. earth/blog/desertification-in-africa-and-how-desertification-can-affect-people-in-africa (August 2021) Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America. 9 The consequences of this crisis go beyond humanitarian concerns. Climate-induced migration exacerbates socio-political tensions, pressures infrastructure in receiving areas, and destabilizes economies. Nonetheless, the response at the international level has remained grossly insufficient, with developed countries reluctant to deal comprehensively with the issue. This is due to a mix of political, economic, and bureaucratic barriers coupled with a lack of consensus on the status of climate refugees under international law. The worsening situation requires global policies that will address the crisis with clarity.
10 Reluctance of Developed Countries Most developed nations have demonstrated lackluster commitments to addressing the climate refugee crisis. For example, Japan, a world economic leader, has been criticized for its lack of meaningful engagement with climate security. Japan's refugee protection policies11 continue to be counted among the weakest in the developed nations: for example, Japan accepted only 74 refugees in 2021 compared to Germany, which accepted more than 100,000 during the same year—a visibly huge disparity. The gap is also enhanced by Japan's strict asylum application procedures and a relatively low level of awareness regarding climate-related migration issues. In 2019, only 44 individuals were recognized as refugees in Japan—deeply contrasting the scale of the global crisis at hand.
To an extent, this mirrors a wider tendency among industrialized nations to trivialize the urgency of climate-induced displacement to instead prioritize economic and security interests over humanitarian ones. 12 The inaction is both a moral and practical dilemma. Developed nations are responsible for the largest share of emissions, thus being great drivers of climate change. But these nations tend to shy away from their responsibility toward those most vulnerable to its effects. This disparity brings into clear view the pressing need for international agreements that will not only acknowledge climate refugees but also ensure burden-sharing by nations to give resources and 9 Satchit Balsari, Caleb Dresser and Jennifer Leaning, Climate Change, Migration, and Civil Strif, 7(4) Migration, and Civil Strife. Curr Environ Health Rep.
10 Hitesh, The New Face of Migration
Addressing the Legal and Policy Gaps for Climate Refugees, ISB https://blogs.isb.edu/bhartiinstitute/2025/01/08/the-new-face-of-migration-addressing-the-legal-and-policygaps-for-climate-refugees/ (January 2025) 11 EAF, Refugee rights in Japan are fading fast, https://eastasiaforum.org/2023/08/16/refugee-rights-in-japanare-fadingfast/#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20Ukrainians%20fleeing,to%20accept%20refugees%20fleeing%20the (August 2023)
12 MOFA Japan, Refugee Policy in Japan (2019)
protection. India’s Dual Role: Contributor and Victim India, the world's most populous country with a rapidly developing economy, finds itself in a unique situation in the climate refugee issue. 13 As one among the greatest producers of greenhouse gases (about 7% of world emissions), it has significant responsibility for global warming. Simultaneously, its large population and diverse topography make it particularly vulnerable to climate change. The confluence of these facts provides India with complicated issues that necessitate tailored and region-specific solutions. 14 Coastal Areas: Sea-Level Rise and Cyclones India's wide coastline, which stretches over 7,500 km, is especially vulnerable to the effects of increasing sea levels and stronger hurricanes. 15 The Sundarbans, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and home to millions, has been one of the most impacted areas.
According to a 2021 study published in Nature Communications, the Sundarbans16 have lost about 13% of their landmass to rising sea levels and erosion in the last three decades. According to the World Bank, approximately 1. 5 million Sundarbans residents are at risk of being displaced as a result of environmental concerns. Sea-level rise has submerged entire villages, forcing residents to flee to cities or neighbouring states. Cyclones, such as Cyclone Amphan in 2020,17 have exacerbated the issue, resulting in significant devastation and displacement. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), disasters displaced nearly 2. 5 million people in India in 2022 alone, with a large share coming from coastal areas. During the monsoon season, cities such as Mumbai and Chennai see frequent flooding, disrupting lives and damaging infrastructure.
The urban poor living in low-lying, informal communities are especially vulnerable. For example, the 2019 monsoon floods in Mumbai left thousands
13 MoI&B, India
World’s Fastest-Growing Major Economy, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2094025#:~:text=As%20the%20fastest%2Dgrowing%20larg e%20economy%2C%20with%20steady%20growth%20projected,outpace%20global%20peers%20and%20ceme nt (January 2025)
14 World Bank, India
Helping People Build Resilience to Climate Change, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india/brief/advancing-climate-adaptation-building-resilience-to-climatechange-inindia#:~:text=Bordered%20by%20the%20fragile%20young,particularly%20vulnerable%20to%20climate%20c hange. (November 2023)
15 RMSI,
https://www.rmsi.com/ri/newsletter_X_2023/In_Focus.html#:~:text=As%20per%20the%20IPCC%20report,shif t%20in%20the%20entire%20coastline.
16 World Resources Institute, India's Sundarbans
Coping with Climate Change (2022).
17 Business Standards, https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/natural-disasters-caused-2-5-milliondisplacements-in-india-last-year-123051600996_1. (January 2025) homeless and exposed the city's inadequate drainage infrastructure. If current trends continue, increasing sea levels and unpredictable weather patterns might displace millions more coastal residents, worsening urban overpopulation.18 Riverbank Erosion: The Case of Assam Riverbank erosion, a long-standing problem in the north-eastern state of Assam, has displaced thousands of people each year. The Brahmaputra River, one of the world's largest, erodes enormous areas of land every year, consuming farmland and entire villages. According to a
2020 report titled "Erosion and Flood Management in Assam" by Assam's Water Resources
Department, the Brahmaputra River19 has eroded around 8,000 hectares of land per year over the last decade, displacing approximately 90,000 people each year. 20 The displaced populations, sometimes known as "erosion refugees," confront tremendous obstacles in finding alternate livelihoods and homes. Many people relocate to surrounding towns, increasing the burden on local resources and infrastructure. Despite the persistent nature of the problem, mitigating attempts have been limited, leaving vulnerable communities with little support. 21 Droughts: Rural-to-Urban Migration Droughts are becoming more common in India's inland areas, particularly Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Karnataka, wreaking havoc on agriculture. Agriculture, which employs roughly 42% of India's workers, relies heavily on monsoon rainfall.
The failure of the monsoons in recent years has left many farmers in debt, forcing them to quit their land and relocate to cities in search of jobs. 22 The results of this migration are obvious in urban slums, which are overcrowded and have terrible living conditions. Cities such as Delhi and Mumbai struggle to accommodate the surge of rural migrants, resulting in insufficient access to housing, sanitation, and basic amenities. The 2016 drought in Maharashtra's Marathwada region, for example, caused an unprecedented wave of migration to metropolitan areas, demonstrating the obvious 18 iDMC, https://www. internaldisplacement. org/countries/india/#:~:text=In%202022%2C%20the%20number%20of,96%20per%20cent%20of %20them. (2023)
19 Das, P., et al., Erosion and Displacement Along the Brahmaputra River (2019)
20 Tushar Dakua, Manisha Kaushik, Puja Das and Vasim Ahamad, Natural Disasters and Internally Displaced Population in India: An Analysis from IDMC Data 103 (2 & 3): 2023, pp. 65-81 (November 2023)
21 Dasgupta, S., Climate-Induced Migration in India (2020)
22 The Guardian, https://www. theguardian. com/global-development/2016/apr/27/india-drought-migrants-headto-cities-in-desperate-search-for-water? link between climatic change. 23 Human and Policy Challenges The grim numbers of climate displacement conceal stories of loss, resilience, and adaptation. Rising sea levels in the Maldives24 threaten not only their houses but also their cultural legacy, forcing entire villages to relocate. If current trends continue, the low-lying nation, which has more than 80% of its land area below one metre above sea level, risks being completely flooded within a century. For the displaced, relocation means cutting ties with ancestral territories, traditions, and ways of life.
25 Families displaced by recurring floods, riverbank erosion, and cyclones in Bangladesh26, one of the world's most climate-vulnerable countries, are frequently forced to live in congested cities like Dhaka. Dhaka, which already has more than 22 million residents, is struggling to provide appropriate housing, sanitation, and economic prospects for the expanding number of displaced people. Many migrants end up in slums, where they live in unsanitary conditions and are at danger of disease outbreaks. Cyclones like Amphan (2020) and Yaas (2021) have wreaked havoc on entire towns in India's Sundarbans, forcing families to reconstruct their livelihoods in hostile surroundings. Rising salt in water and soil has devastated agriculture, which is the principal source of income for many people in the region, exacerbating economic misery.
27 Psycho-social and Economic Impacts The psychological impact of displacement is significant. Displaced people frequently feel grief, stress, and anxiety as a result of the abrupt loss of their homes, jobs, and social relationships. 28 Many people's troubles are exacerbated by uncertainty about their future. Children, who are especially vulnerable, frequently experience disruptions in school, worsening the long-term effects of displacement on their prospects. Economic deprivation exacerbates these issues. 23 Badsha Sarkar, Swarup Dutta, and Prashant Kumar Singh, Drought and temporary migration in rural India: A comparative study across different socio-economic groups with a cross-sectional nationally representative dataset, NLM (October 2022) 24 Sonia Falerio, MITR, https://www. technologyreview. com/2020/11/19/1012216/sundarbans-amphan-climatechange-migration/? (November 2020)
25 World Bank, Climate Migration Reports (2021, 2022)
26 Tim McDonnell, Climate change creates a new migration crisis for Bangladesh, National Geography
(January 2019)
27 International Organization for Migration, World Migration Report (2023)
28 iDMC, https://www.internal-displacement.org/focus-areas/impact-perspective-internal-displacement/?
Displaced people are frequently forced to live in poverty due to a lack of job opportunities.29 Women and children, the most vulnerable individuals, who suffer tremendous challenges in accessing essential services like healthcare and education. They are also at higher risk of exploitation, including human trafficking, which is on the rise in areas affected by climate relocation.30 Gaps in International Policy One of the most obvious issues is the absence of legal recognition for climate refugees. The
1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol describe refugees as those fleeing persecution
because of their race, religion, nationality, or political beliefs. 31 This definition excludes persons who have been moved due to climate-related factors, leaving them without statutory protections or rights. As a result, millions of climate refugees find themselves in a legal inertia unable to obtain international aid or seek asylum. 32 India, although being a prominent player in global climate negotiations, has yet to develop a comprehensive national policy to address climate-induced displacement. Disaster management procedures in the country are generally reactive, focussing on urgent aid rather than long-term recovery. This method does not address the underlying causes of displacement or provide longterm remedies for affected communities. Globally, the lack of a definitive agreement on handling climate-induced migration puts displaced communities in legal ambiguity.
33 The Way Forward: Solutions and Strategies Global Initiatives The international community must act decisively to address the growing threat of climateinduced displacement. Expanding the scope of the 1951 Refugee Convention or creating a new framework specifically for climate refugees will provide critical legal recognition and protections. This might include allowing displaced people the ability to seek asylum and receive international assistance. Financially wealthy nations, particularly those responsible for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions, must step up to assist disadvantaged countries. 29 JDFCD, https://www. jointdatacenter. org/literature_review/women-and-girls-in-internal-displacement/? (March 2020) 30 WHO, https://www. who. int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-and-forced-displacement? (August 2021)
31 UNHCR, https://www.unhcr.org/us/about-unhcr/overview/1951-refugee-convention?
32 Surbhi Arul, India needs to recognise the rights of climate refugees, IDR https://idronline. org/article/climateemergency/india-needs-to-recognise-the-rights-of-climate-refugees/? (June 2022) 33 Joanna Apap with Sami James Harju, The concept of 'climate refugee' Towards a possible definition, EPRS (October 2023) Mechanisms like the Green Climate Fund (GCF)34 can help finance climate adaptation and resilience projects. To alleviate the effects of climate disasters, funds might be allocated to create resilient infrastructure in susceptible areas, such as flood-resistant homes and enhanced drainage systems. Relocation and resettlement initiatives should prioritise the dignity and rights of displaced communities. Community involvement in planning and decision-making processes is critical for achieving fair results and minimising social damage.
National Strategies India must take a proactive approach to tackling the internal displacement induced by climate change. This includes enacting policies aimed at disaster prevention, resilient infrastructure, and livelihood assistance. For example, coastal areas vulnerable to storms and flooding could benefit from sea wall building, mangrove restoration, and improved early warning systems. Sustainable urban development is equally important. With cities like Delhi and Mumbai already under enormous strain, urban planning must accommodate expanding people without overloading existing systems. Investments in affordable housing, public transport, and sanitation are critical to provide a reasonable standard of living for all people, including migrants. 35 Community-driven activities can also help to strengthen resilience.
Reforestation projects, water conservation programs, and sustainable agriculture techniques help local communities adapt to changing environmental conditions. For example, Andhra Pradesh's36 Zero Budget Natural Farming initiative has assisted thousands of farmers to adopt climate-resilient practices, lowering migration from rural areas. 37 Local Success Stories Grassroots solutions provide valuable insights on addressing climate-related challenges. In Bangladesh, innovative approaches such as floating farms have allowed farmers to continue growing food despite periodic flooding. 38 These farms, built with natural materials such as
34 GCF, Green Climate Fund Annual Report (2021)
35 Maribel Hernández, Orville Grey, Christian Ledwell, and Geneva Juanyu Yang, Understanding Green
Climate Fund Support for Adaptation Planning: An analysis of GCF readiness proposals on adaptation planning https://napglobalnetwork.org/resource/understanding-green-climate-fund-support-adaptationplanning/ (November 2024)
36 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Climate-Resilient Agriculture in Andhra Pradesh (2022)
37 University of Reading, https://research. reading. ac. uk/research-blog/2024/08/22/zero-budget-farming-andhrapradesh/ 38 IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Baira: the Floating Gardens - for Sustainable Livelihood (2005) bamboo and water hyacinths, provide a sustainable source of food and revenue. 39 To alleviate drought, Rajasthan has reintroduced traditional water collection technologies such as johads (small clay dams). These technologies not only save water but also recharge groundwater levels, mitigating the effects of water scarcity on local people. Such localised solutions emphasise the possibility for scalable interventions that cater to the specific needs of afflicted communities. 40 Conclusion Climate refugees are a harsh human consequence of the rising climate disaster, with significant social, economic, and moral ramifications.
Forced displacement, ranging from rising sea levels in the Maldives to flooding in the Sundarbans, demonstrates the critical need for global action. These disruptions to lives, livelihoods, and cultural heritage necessitate comprehensive solutions. Addressing climate-induced displacement necessitates a multidimensional approach, including legal frameworks, financial channels, and community empowerment. The 1951 Refugee Convention lacks protections for climate refugees, resulting in a protection gap. A clear legal definition, whether through an update or a new agreement, is critical for protecting their rights. Financial support for adaptation and mitigation is critical. Vulnerable countries, which are frequently the least culpable for climate change, require aid. Developed nations are responsible for supporting adaptation measures such as coastal defences and drought-resistant crops.
Mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund are critical, but they require greater commitment. Empowering afflicted populations increases resilience. Displacement destroys life and increases vulnerabilities. Community-based adaptation solutions that leverage local knowledge are more effective. These include community-managed relocation, diversification of livelihoods, and educational investments. Addressing the underlying reasons through emissions reductions is critical to preventing further relocation. The escalating catastrophe, which includes expected increases in extreme weather events and sealevel rise (IPCC), necessitates immediate response. Inaction will exacerbate inequality, prolong suffering, and destabilise vulnerable places. The costs of inaction are disproportionately exceptional.
International collaboration, technological innovation, resilience building, and aggressive carbon reductions are critical to a more egalitarian and sustainable future. 39 M. A. Islam, M. S. A. Khandoker and S. Choudhury, International Scholars Journals, Constraints of floating farming in Haor area of Bangladesh, Vol. 9 (9), pp. 001-005 (Sept. 2019) 40 Agarwal, A. , & Narain, S. , Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems. Centre for Science and Environment (1997)
References
1 Agarwal, A., & Narain, S., Dying Wisdom
Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems. Centre for Science and Environment (1997)
2. Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhary, Climate change fueling climate migration
https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/climate-change-fueling-climatemigration#:~:text=Often%20terms%20such%20as%20%E2%80%9Cenvironmental,e nvironmental%20migrants%E2%80%9D%20are%20used%20interchangeably. (December 2022)
3. Badsha Sarkar, Swarup Dutta, and Prashant Kumar Singh, Drought and temporary
migration in rural India: A comparative study across different socio-economic groups with a cross-sectional nationally representative dataset, NLM (October 2022) 4. Business Standards, https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/natural-disasterscaused-2-5-million-displacements-in-india-last-year-123051600996_1. (January 2025)
5 Caitlan M. Sussman, A Global Migration Framework Under Water
How Can the International Community Protect Climate Refugees? https://cjil.uchicago.edu/onlinearchive/global-migration-framework-under-water-how-can-international-communityprotect
6. Carter, J., et al., Coastal Erosion and Displacement in the United States (2022)
7. Das, P., et al., Erosion and Displacement Along the Brahmaputra River (2019)
8. Dasgupta, S., Climate-Induced Migration in India (2020)
9. Desertification in Africa and how desertification can affect people in Africa?
https://www.green.earth/blog/desertification-in-africa-and-how-desertification-canaffect-people-in-africa (August 2021)
10. EAF,
Refugee rights in Japan are fading fast, https://eastasiaforum.org/2023/08/16/refugee-rights-in-japan-are-fadingfast/#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20Ukrainians%20fleeing,to%20accept%20refug ees%20fleeing%20the (August 2023)
11. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Climate-Resilient Agriculture in Andhra
Pradesh (2022)
12. GCF, Green Climate Fund Annual Report (2021)
13 Hitesh, The New Face of Migration
Addressing the Legal and Policy Gaps for Climate Refugees, ISB https://blogs.isb.edu/bhartiinstitute/2025/01/08/the-new-face-ofmigration-addressing-the-legal-and-policy-gaps-for-climate-refugees/ (January 2025)
14. iDMC,
https://www.internal-displacement.org/focus-areas/impact-perspectiveinternal-displacement/?
15. International Organization for Migration, World Migration Report (2023)
16. IPCC, Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low-lying Islands, Coasts and
Communities, https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-4-sea-level-rise-andimplications-for-low-lying-islands-coasts-andcommunities/#:~:text=Rising%20mean%20and%20increasingly%20extreme,permane nt%20submergence%20of%20land%20by
17 IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Baira
the Floating Gardens
for Sustainable Livelihood (2005)
18. JDFCD,
https://www.jointdatacenter.org/literature_review/women-and-girls-ininternal-displacement/? (March 2020)
19. Joanna Apap with Sami James Harju, The concept of 'climate refugee' Towards a
possible definition, EPRS (October 2023)
20. M.A. Islam, M.S.A. Khandoker and S. Choudhury, International Scholars Journals,
Constraints of floating farming in Haor area of Bangladesh, Vol. 9 (9), pp. 001-005 (Sept. 2019)
21. Maribel Hernández, Orville Grey, Christian Ledwell, and Geneva Juanyu Yang,
Understanding Green Climate Fund Support for Adaptation Planning: An analysis of GCF readiness proposals on adaptation planning https://napglobalnetwork.org/resource/understanding-green-climate-fund-supportadaptation-planning/ (November 2024)
22. MOFA Japan, Refugee Policy in Japan (2019)
23. MoI&B,
India: World’s Fastest-Growing Major Economy, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2094025#:~:text=As%20the%20fas test%2Dgrowing%20large%20economy%2C%20with%20steady%20growth%20proj ected,outpace%20global%20peers%20and%20cement (January 2025)
24. NOAA, Annual Hurricane Report (2023)
25. Research
on past hurricanes aims to reduce future risk, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/01/250117161225.htm (January 2025)
26. RMSI,
https://www.rmsi.com/ri/newsletter_X_2023/In_Focus.html#:~:text=As%20per%20th e%20IPCC%20report,shift%20in%20the%20entire%20coastline.
27. Satchit Balsari, Caleb Dresser and Jennifer Leaning, Climate Change, Migration, and
Civil Strif, 7(4) Migration, and Civil Strife. Curr Environ Health Rep.
28. Sonia
Falerio, MITR, https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/11/19/1012216/sundarbans-amphanclimate-change-migration/? (November 2020)
29. Surbhi Arul, India needs to recognise the rights of climate refugees, IDR
https://idronline.org/article/climate-emergency/india-needs-to-recognise-the-rights-ofclimate-refugees/? (June 2022) 30. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/apr/27/indiadrought-migrants-head-to-cities-in-desperate-search-for-water?
31. Tim McDonnell, Climate change creates a new migration crisis for Bangladesh,
National Geography (January 2019)
32. Tushar Dakua, Manisha Kaushik, Puja Das and Vasim Ahamad, Natural Disasters and
Internally Displaced Population in India: An Analysis from IDMC Data 103 (2 & 3): 2023, pp. 65-81 (November 2023)
33. UNHCR,
https://www.unhcr.org/news/press-releases/unhcr-report-reveals-climatechange-growing-threat-people-already-fleeingwar#:~:text=Of%20the%20more%20than%20120,heavily%20impacted%20by%20cli mate%20change (November 2024)
34. UNHCR, https://www.unhcr.org/us/about-unhcr/overview/1951-refugee-convention?
35. University of Reading, https://research.reading.ac.uk/research-blog/2024/08/22/zerobudget-farming-andhra-pradesh/
36. WHO,
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-and-forceddisplacement? (August 2021)
37. World Bank, Climate Migration Reports (2021, 2022)
38 World Bank, India
Helping People Build Resilience to Climate Change, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india/brief/advancing-climate-adaptationbuilding-resilience-to-climate-change-inindia#:~:text=Bordered%20by%20the%20fragile%20young,particularly%20vulnera ble%20to%20climate%20change. (November 2023)
39 World Resources Institute, India's Sundarbans
Coping with Climate Change (2022).