Evolving Criminal Procedure - The Legal Framework Of Arrest And Bail In The Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita
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Category: Criminal Law
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EVOLVING CRIMINAL PROCEDURE: THE LEGAL
FRAMEWORK OF ARREST AND BAIL IN THE BHARTIYA NAGARIK SURAKSHA SANHITA Ashwani Kumar, LL.M Department of Law, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University Sagar
ABSTRACT
This research critically examines the evolving framework of arrest and bail within India, specifically under the recently enacted Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) 2023. Focusing on the constitutional mandate to uphold personal liberty, the study navigates through historical, legal, and procedural perspectives that shape current norms in criminal jurisprudence. It underscores the shift from the traditional Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, toward a modernized legal structure, intended to balance public order with individual freedoms. By analysing judicial interpretations and comparative international standards, this paper explores the efficacy of the BNSS’s safeguards against arbitrary detention and its streamlined bail processes.
Key highlights include reinforced judicial oversight, protections against misuse of arrest powers, and an emphasis on the principle of 'bail not jail,' aligning with recent Supreme Court rulings. The study thus seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the BNSS’s impact on individual rights, with a forward-looking perspective on its implementation challenges in India's criminal justice landscape. Keywords: Arrest and Bail Framework, Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) 2023, constitutional Norms, Judicial Oversight, Arbitrary Detention, 'Bail not Jail' Principle.
Introduction
The right to liberty is of utmost value. It is one of the fundamental rights protected by the Constitution and is also the cornerstone of the rule of law. Personal liberty is the cornerstone of our legal system. Personal liberty refers to the freedom of an individual to act, think and make decisions without interference from authorities, especially the government. It emphasizes the rights and autonomy of the individual. It includes various civil liberties such as freedom of expression, freedom of movement, freedom of religion and the right to privacy. On the other hand, social liberty deals with collective freedoms that ensure social justice, equality and the well-being of the community. It emphasizes the role of society and institutions in creating an environment where everyone has the opportunity to flourish.
It includes social rights and freedoms that ensure that individuals can fully participate in society, such as the right to education, health care and equal opportunity. Arrest is a legal term, clearly “arresting” restricts the liberty of a person so that they can obey the orders of the court, avoid committing a crime or ensure that someone accused or suspected of a crime can testify on it and the process of bail is the process immediately after arrest. So, the provision of bail is possible only after arrest in most of the cases. The term bail has not been defined in any law prevalent in India. In general terms, ‘bail’ means the security deposited in the court for the purpose of temporary release of the accused from imprisonment during the trial of the case in the court.
In the landmark decision of Arnesh Kumar vs State of Bihar, the Supreme Court decided that arrest should be an exception in those cases where the punishment is imprisonment for less than seven years. The present short research points towards the freedom of man. Which is reflected in the following lines. Arrest and bail are the basic components of the criminal justice system in India which play an important role in balancing the interests of justice, personal liberty and public order. These legal concepts have evolved through centuries of jurisprudence, influenced by ancient legal traditions, colonial rule and contemporary reforms. To appreciate the broad framework of legal rights and state authority in India, it is essential to understand the mechanism of arrest and bail.
In India, arrest of an accused is being done without any reason and investigation in the irrationality of law and hence it is a violation of the fundamental liberty of an individual. According to the legal rules, arrest of the accused should be done only in exceptional circumstances. Therefore, it is important to determine when an accused person can be taken into custody. In addition, it should also be determined whether the arresting authority has complied with the legal guidelines for due procedure while making the arrest. Consequently, it is important to see how the law relating to arrest is used and misused and also what options for corrective action are available to the wrongly arrested accused person and what rights are given to the arrested person regarding bail. This is the subject matter of study of this research paper.
Detention: Constitutional Framework Detention Obstructing Right to Life: Article 21 Detention and arrest are synonymous for a common man, but from the point of view of law, detention means obstructing the freedom of a person for the purpose of questioning by the police, while arrest means taking the accused into custody by the police. India is a democratic country and in a democratic system, the Constitution is the supreme law. Every judicial work of the country is done within the limits of the Constitution. Other national laws get strength from the Constitution and they work within the ambit of the Constitution. The Indian Constitution is dedicated to the people of India, so it is the biggest protector of the citizens. In the context of the Indian Constitution, many provisions and safeguards are provided to protect the rights of the citizens.
The purpose of these provisions is to ensure that no person is subjected to injustice and their personal freedom is not unreasonably obstructed. For which the following provisions have been given: Article 21 of the Indian Constitution Right to life and personal liberty, which no person can be deprived of without the procedure established by law. Article 21 provides that 'no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. The right to life and personal liberty is supreme among all rights and Article 21 provides protection to this right. In the case of A. K. Gopalan vs. State of Madras, the petitioner was detained and put in jail under the Preventive Detention Act, 1950.
The Supreme Court rejected all the arguments put forward by the petitioner on the grounds of the legality of detention and held that although 'liberty' is a word with a wide meaning, but in Article 21 its scope has been limited by adding the adjective 'bodily' and in this sense 'physical liberty' means only 'bodily liberty' i. e. freedom to detain a person in prison without the authority of law, etc. According to Dicey, 'physical liberty' means the freedom of all individuals against punishment, arrest or other physical restraints without legal justification. In the case of Maneka Gandhi vs Union of India, the Supreme Court gave a new dimension to Article 21 and made its scope extremely broad. In this, the court held that the right to 'life' is not limited only to the physical element but it includes the right to live with the preservation of human dignity.
In Govind vs State of Madhya Pradesh, it has been held that 'right to privacy' is also included under Article 21. But this is not an absolute right and restrictions can be imposed on it. Earlier, in the case of Kharg Singh vs State of Punjab, the Supreme Court had held that the entry of police in a person's house at night violates his fundamental right to life and personal liberty given under Article 21. Offence Against Detention: Article 22 Article 22 prescribes the procedural conditions which must be met in any procedure prescribed by the legislature. If these procedural conditions are not properly complied with, the deprivation of a person of his personal liberty will not be according to the procedure prescribed by law and will be declared illegal. In fact, Article 22 is complementary to Article 21 and both should be read together. Article 22 is not complete in itself.
Laws passed under Article 22 will be tested on the touchstone of reasonableness and due procedure prescribed in Article 21. In the case of Maneka Gandhi, Gopalan's decision was reversed and it was held that the law and procedure should be reasonable, fair and in accordance with the principles of natural justice. Thus, preventive detention laws must now fulfil two conditions (1) compliance with Article 22 (5), and (2) the procedure under Article 21 must be reasonable and just. Defence under common law Clause (1) and (2) of Article 22 provide the following rights to a person arrested in connection with an offence: (1) Right to be informed at the earliest of the reasons for arrest. (2) Right to consult and be defended by a lawyer of his choice.
(3) Right to be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest. (4) Freedom from detention without a magistrate’s order for more than 24 hours. Violation of the above protections renders the arrest unconstitutional. The accused in the Mumbai terror attack, a Pakistani national, was offered a lawyer at the time of his arrest but he refused. Thereafter he completely refused to take the services of an Indian lawyer and requested that a lawyer from his country be provided to him. When he was convinced that no such help would be given to him from his country, he demanded a lawyer which was promptly fulfilled. It cannot be said that any constitutional rights of the accused were violated. Arrest and bail; Developmental Othread The word "arrest" is Anglo-Norman in origin, derived from the French word arrest meaning 'to stop or to stay' and indicating the restraining of a person.
Lexicologically, the word arrest has different meanings in different dictionaries depending on the circumstances in which the word is used. There are many slang terms for arrest around the world. In British slang terminology, the word "nicked" is often synonymous with arrest, and "nick" can also mean police station, and the term "pinched" is also common. In the United States and France, the term "collared" is sometimes used. The terms "lifted" or "picked up" are also sometimes heard. Arrest is the act of seizing and detaining (legal protection or control) a person, usually because the person is suspected of committing a crime or has been observed committing a crime. After being detained, the person may be further questioned and/or charged. Arrest is a process in the criminal justice system, sometimes even after a court warrant for arrest.
In the annals of history, the criminal law of England did not emerge as a continuous and connected subject. Aptly Sir James Stephen describes that: “Criminal law considered as a whole is like a building whose parts have been built at different times, in different styles and for different purposes. Each part has a history which begins with its foundation and ends when it reaches its present shape, but the whole has no history because it has no unity. In the case of impounding of passport of Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that the liberty and fundamental rights of the individual cannot be infringed without due process of law. The case also underlines the importance of due process in the context of arrests.
In the case of Kedarnath Singh v State of Bihar, the Supreme Court held that the law of sedition applies only to cases where there is a real threat of violence or disturbance of law and order. This decision was significant in the protection of freedom of speech. Bail: Historical Timeline Black’s Law Dictionary defines bail as, “the release of a person from lawful custody, on an undertaking that he will appear at a specified time and place and submit himself to the jurisdiction and judgment of the court. ” The history of bail can be traced back to 399 BC, when Plato first tried to make a bond to free Socrates. In medieval times, the Circuit Court in Britain created a system of bail. The concept of modern bail has mainly originated from all the medieval statutes governing it.
Kautilya’s Arthashashtra also mentions that escaping custody before trial was ideal, so the concept of bail was prevalent in some form or the other in ancient India as well. During the 17th century, which was the Mughal period, bail was in vogue in the form of 'muchalka' and 'bail'. The concept of bail has its roots in ancient times, with evidence of its use found across various cultures and civilizations. Here is a brief overview: • Ancient Mesopotamia (circa 2000 BCE): The Code of Hammurabi allowed for the release of accused persons on the promise of payment or collateral. • Ancient Greece and Rome (circa 500 BCE – 500 CE): Bail was used to ensure the appearance of defendants in court, with the requirement of sureties or collateral.
• Medieval England (circa 1100s): The concept of bail was introduced to England by the Normans, with sureties and collateral used to ensure the release of accused persons. • 17th and 18th centuries: Bail methods were codified in England, with the introduction of the Bail Act of 1677 and the Bail Act of 1689.
United States (circa late 1700s): The concept of bail was adopted in the American colonies, using sureties and collateral to secure the release of accused individuals. • 19th and 20th centuries: Bail methods evolved in the United States with the introduction of bail bondsmen and the use of cash bail. procedure of Bail; Indian Perspective When a person is arrested, he is taken to the police station to register a case. The police station where the suspect is taken has jurisdiction over the area where the suspect resides. To get bail, the following procedure must be followed: First, the accused person or his lawyer must file a bail petition in the court having jurisdiction over the case. The bail petition must state the reasons why the accused person should be granted bail and the grounds on which bail is being sought.
• The bail application must be accompanied by an affidavit from the accused person stating the facts of the case and the reasons for granting bail. • The accused person or his lawyer must also serve a copy of the bail application on the public prosecutor, who represents the state in the case. • The court will then hear arguments from both the accused person and the public prosecutor and examine the evidence presented before it. • If the court is satisfied that there are no reasonable grounds to believe that the accused person has committed the crime and that he is not likely to abscond or interfere with the investigation, the court may grant bail. • If the court grants bail, it will set out the conditions on which bail is being granted, such as furnishing a surety or bond, surrendering a passport, or attending the police station regularly.
The amount of bail that the accused has to deposit is also at the discretion of the court. However, in less serious criminal cases, a standard amount is prescribed by tradition and practice, which has to be deposited to get bail.
International Law Relating to Arrest and Bail International law analyses the basic rules governing arrest, detention, remand and bail. The United Nations was established by the international community in 1945 and since then the international community has tried to achieve the human right to freedom from fear and has developed international human rights law for this purpose. The right to personal liberty is the most important and fundamental of all human rights. Personal rights are weak and illusory without the guarantee of liberty and security of the person. An important dimension of this right is freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention. This was also recognised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948. Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that "Everyone has the right to life, liberty and personal security".
While Article 9 specifies that "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. " Similarly with regard to arbitrary arrest or detention, Article 9(1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states, “Everyone has the right to liberty and personal security. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention. No one shall be deprived of his liberty except on such grounds and according to such procedure as are established by law. ” The concept of freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention appears in many European countries early on, such as the Magna Carta of England, the Habeas Corpus Act of England and the French Declaration of Human Rights. The above texts help to form the first definitions of freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention.
Article 39 of the Magna Carta states “No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, nor shall he be deprived of his liberty, nor his liberty, nor his customs, nor outlawed, nor exiled, or in any other manner deprived of his rights, nor shall he be able to do anything for the same. ” nor shall we prosecute or convict him, but by the lawful judgment or of his peers or by the law of the land. The protection of Article 39 did not extend to all citizens, although the term "free man" referred only to members of the small feudal class. The protection that Magna Carta had provided to earls and barons during the reign of Edward III (1327-77) was extended to "all men". Magna Carta was the first important step towards the recognition of the right to freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention.
Arrest and Bail: An International Perspective Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights contains four essential concepts: (a) arbitrary (b) arrest (c) detention and (d) deportation.
The meaning of the concepts "arrest" and "detention" as provided by the United Nations Committee on the Study of the Right of Everyone to be Free from Arbitrary Arrest, Detention and Deportation. The UN Committee defines “arrest” as: “the act of taking a person into custody under the authority of law or by other means of compulsion and includes the period from the time he is detained until the time he is produced before an authority which may order his continuance or release. Similarly, the UN Committee also defines “detention” as “the act of confining a person to a fixed place, whether or not in continuation of arrest, and under restrictions which prevent him from being with his family or from carrying out his normal occupational or social activities.
Arrest and Bail: Indian perspective under (BNSS) The ' Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita ' is the principal law on the procedure for the administration of substantive criminal law in India. The Bill consolidates and amends the law relating to criminal procedure. It is an approach towards overhauling the current criminal laws of the country as the experience of several decades of Indian democracy calls for a comprehensive review of our criminal laws, including the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and adapt them to the contemporary needs and aspirations of the people. The Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita(BNSS), 2023 is a significant legislative development, replacing the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (CrPC). The BNSS aims to modernise and reform the procedural law governing criminal cases in India, including provisions on arrest and bail, two important aspects of criminal justice.
This legal analysis focuses on the provisions relating to arrest and bail under the BNSS and highlights the key changes, its implications, and a comparative analysis with earlier laws. Provisions for Arrest under BNSS, 2023 Arrest refers to a lawful action taken by law enforcement agencies to deprive a person of his or her liberty, often as a preliminary step in a criminal investigation. The BNSS outlines specific guidelines for the arrest of individuals, aimed at balancing the state’s interests in maintaining law and order with the fundamental rights of individuals.
Types of Arrest According to the BNSS, similar to the CrPC, arrests can be divided into two broad categories: Arrest with warrant: Arrest made with the authorization of a magistrate, which is generally required for non-cognizable offences where immediate police action is unnecessary without judicial oversight. Arrest without warrant: The police have the power to arrest without a warrant in cases of cognizable offences where immediate action is necessary due to the gravity of the offence. Protection against arbitrary arrest The BNSS emphasises the protection of individual rights during arrest, including a number of safeguards: Enhanced judicial monitoring: The BNSS introduces clear guidelines for judicial review after arrest, ensuring that arbitrary and unlawful arrests are minimised.
Mandatory compliance with human rights: The 2023 Code underlines the importance of complying with constitutional mandates under Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty) and Article 22 (protection against arbitrary arrest). Notice of arrest: Section 41A of the CrPC, which made it mandatory to issue a notice for appearance when arrest was not required, has been retained under the BNSS with further clarifications. This provision protects individuals from unnecessary detention, especially for offences punishable with imprisonment for less than seven years. Rights of the arrested person The BNSS reiterates the rights of the arrested person, as mentioned in the CrPC, which include: Right to be informed of the grounds of arrest: Under Article 22(1) of the Constitution and the corresponding provisions in the BNSS, the arrested person must be informed of the reason for his arrest.
Right to legal representation: The arrested person has the right to consult a legal practitioner of his choice. If they cannot do so, the State is obliged to provide legal aid under Article 39A. Right to be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours: The BNSS has retained the requirement that the arrested person must be produced before a judicial magistrate within 24 hours of arrest to ensure judicial monitoring. Bail Provisions under BNSS, 2023 Bail is the temporary release of an accused person awaiting trial, often under the condition of providing security to ensure their appearance in court. The concept of bail is deeply rooted in the principle of personal liberty, ensuring that a person is not unnecessarily deprived of liberty before being proven guilty.
Types of Bail Like the CrPC, the BNSS recognises three primary categories of bail: Regular Bail: Granted under normal circumstances when the accused is in judicial custody and awaiting trial or investigation. Anticipatory Bail: Granted under Section 438 of the CrPC (now retained in the BNSS), it is a pre-arrest bail to prevent the person from being detained in anticipation of arrest in cases of non-bailable offences. Interim Bail: A temporary bail that is granted until the regular bail application is heard and decided by the court. Bailable and non-bailable offences The BNSS retains the distinction between bailable and non-bailable offences, but clarifies some grey areas for better implementation: Bailable offences: For offences classified as bailable, granting bail is a matter of right, and the police or the court is bound to release the accused on bail.
Non-bailable offences: In the case of non-bailable offences, the grant of bail is at the discretion of the court. The court will consider various factors such as the gravity of the offence, the risk of the accused tampering with evidence, or the possibility of the accused absconding. Reforms introduced by BNSS on bail provisions Simplification of bail process: BNSS introduces a more streamlined process for applying for bail. This is aimed at reducing complexity and delays in processing bail applications, so that those in custody can get faster relief. Emphasis on bail instead of prison: The new provisions advocate the principle of “bail instead of prison”, especially for minor and less serious offences. This is in line with judicial trends that emphasise the importance of personal liberty and the presumption of innocence until proven guilty.
Regular monitoring of bail conditions: BNSS includes provisions for periodic review of bail conditions to ensure that the conditions are not overly burdensome and are in sync with the changing circumstances of the case. Digitalisation of the Bail Application Process: As part of India’s move towards digital governance, the BNSS includes provisions for filing and processing bail applications electronically, improving efficiency and reducing delays. 2. 4. Grant of Anticipatory Bail Anticipatory bail remains an important provision in the BNSS. It is often sought when a person anticipates arrest based on a reasonable belief of false or motivated allegations.
The BNSS has retained Section 438 with certain modifications: Higher threshold for granting anticipatory bail in heinous crimes: Courts will now have to more strictly consider the nature of the allegations and the gravity of the offence before granting anticipatory bail in cases involving heinous crimes. Role of Public Prosecutor: The BNSS has enhanced the role of the public prosecutor during anticipatory bail hearings, allowing them to present objections and relevant material for the court’s consideration. Judicial Trends and Comparative Analysis The judiciary has played a key role in shaping the law on arrest and bail through landmark judgements.
The BNSS draws inspiration from these judgments, further codifying principles that promote individual rights: Arnesh Kumar v State of Bihar: In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that police officers should avoid unnecessary arrests, especially for offences punishable by imprisonment of seven years or less. The BNSS emphasises this principle by promoting non-custodial measures where possible. Satender Kumar Antil v CBI: This case highlighted the need for systemic reforms in the granting of bail and reducing pre-trial detention. The BNSS has taken steps in line with the observations of this judgment, streamlining the bail process and reducing delays.
Compared to international standards, the BNSS 2023 introduces reforms that bring India’s criminal procedure law closer to global norms of human rights protection, particularly the UN standards on arrest and detention under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). The Indian Civil Security Code, 2023 seeks to strike a balance between ensuring the efficiency of the criminal justice system and protecting individual rights. The reforms in arrest provisions aim to prevent the abuse of police powers, while bail provisions ensure that individuals are not unjustly deprived of their liberty. By emphasising judicial oversight, enhancing procedural safeguards and simplifying the bail process, the BNSS is a step towards a more just and humane legal framework in India.
However, the effectiveness of these reforms will largely depend on their implementation and the ability of law enforcement and judicial institutions to adapt to the new legal order. Conclusion The makers of the Indian Constitution took inspiration from the constitutions of the world and made provisions in Articles 20, 21, and 22 to protect the rights of the accused and the released persons. The Indian Civil Security Code, 2023 (BNSS) was introduced to replace the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. It aims to modernise the criminal justice system, streamline processes and strike a balance between individual rights and law enforcement. The provisions of arrest, bail, and investigation in the BNSS have been implemented in conformity with the Constitution and principles of natural justice.
However, there is a possibility of misuse of arrest provisions by police officers, to prevent which the Supreme Court has issued guidelines from time to time. Chapter 35 of the BNSS provides for bail so that no person is unnecessarily imprisoned. Granting bail was considered the rule and sending to jail the exception, but there is provision for bail under conditions even in bailable and non-bailable offences. The courts have given guidance on the issue of bail, and the BNSS also provides for certain special and local offences apart from the general criminal law. Despite all this, it is necessary to prevent misuse of the provisions of the BNSS.
References • The Constitution of India • Government of India, Ministry of Law and Justice. Available at https://www. india. gov. in/my-government/constitution-india. • Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 • Government of India, Ministry of Law and Justice. Available at https://legislative. gov. in/sites/default/files/A1974-02. pdf. • Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023 • Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs. Available on official government and legislative portals. • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) • United Nations Human Rights Office. Available at https://www. ohchr. org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr. aspx. • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948 • United Nations General Assembly. Available at https://www. un. org/en/aboutus/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.
• Reports of the Law Commission of India on Bail, Arrest, and Criminal Law Reforms • Available at http://lawcommissionofindia. nic. in/reports/reports. htm. • Black's Law Dictionary, 11th Edition • Thomson Reuters, a comprehensive legal dictionary defining terms related to criminal law, arrest, and bail.
Landmark Cases in Arrest and Bail: • Arnesh Kumar v State of Bihar (Protection against unnecessary arrest for offences punishable with less than seven years). • Satender Kumar Antil v CBI (Reforms in bail procedures and pre-trial detention). • Maneka Gandhi v Union of India (Broadening the interpretation of Article 21 on personal liberty). • A. K. Gopalan v State of Madras (Case on preventive detention and personal liberty). • Historical Texts • Magna Carta, 1215 and the Habeas Corpus Act, 1679 (Foundational texts on personal liberty and freedom from arbitrary detention, accessible via the British Library archives). • Kautilya’s Arthashastra (Ancient Indian perspectives on justice and detention practices). • Legislative Changes and Indian Criminal Law • National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), https://ncrb. gov.
in – For statistical data on crime rates, detention cases, and related trends in India. • Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India, https://legislative. gov. in – Covers recent legislative changes and the full text of recent bills like the Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) 2023. • Constitutional Protections and Judicial Rulings • Supreme Court of India, https://main. sci. gov. in – For case law and judgments referenced in the document (e. g. , Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, Arnesh
Kumar v. State of Bihar). • Law Commission of India, https://lawcommissionofindia. nic. in – For reports on bail law reforms, detention, and criminal procedure. • International Human Rights on Detention and Bail • United Nations Human Rights Office, https://www. ohchr. org – Documents and guidelines regarding international rights to personal liberty, including the ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). • Human Rights Watch, https://www. hrw. org – Offers insight into how different countries manage detention and the human rights implications tied to arbitrary arrest. • Academic Analysis on Criminal Procedure • Jstor, https://www. jstor. org – Academic papers on Indian criminal law, bail systems, and comparative international legal studies. • SSRN (Social Science Research Network), https://www. ssrn.
com – For research articles on legal reforms, historical developments in Indian criminal procedure, and bail processes. • Current Affairs on BNSS and Legal Reforms in India • LiveLaw, https://www. livelaw. in – For commentary and updates on the impact of BNSS and other legal reforms in India. • The Hindu’s Legal Section, https://www. thehindu. com/topic/law – Provides news and expert opinions on recent changes in criminal law and its societal impact.