From Cold Allies To Strategic Partners - Tracing The Evolution Of India-Russia Relations In A Multipolar World
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FROM COLD ALLIES TO STRATEGIC PARTNERS:
TRACING THE EVOLUTION OF INDIA-RUSSIA RELATIONS IN A MULTIPOLAR WORLD
Shreya Joshi, Amity Law School Noida
ABSTRACT
This research paper delves into the transformative trajectory in India-Russia relations, tracing of their evolution from Cold War fellowship into a strategic partnership in a context of a rapidly shifting multipolar world order. The paper seeks to critically evaluate how the Indo-Russian relationship has adapted to changing global dynamics, as well as through a detailed analysis of historical alliances. The evaluation considers defense and energy cooperation, regional and global multilateral engagements, and also recent geopolitical developments. The paper uses qualitative and analytical research to show the challenges and opportunities in this key bilateral relationship. Keywords: India-Russia relations, strategic partnership, multipolarity, defense cooperation, energy security, foreign policy, geopolitical dynamics
Introduction
India and Russia share a time-tested relationship that has evolved through the tides of global political transformations, from the rigid binaries of the Cold War to the fluid multipolarity of the 21st century. Anchored initially in ideological affinity and strategic necessity during the Soviet era, this bilateral relationship has witnessed phases of warmth, recalibration, and resurgence. What began as a Cold War alignment based on mutual interests—particularly in defense, diplomacy, and development— has matured into a multidimensional strategic partnership that reflects both nations' pursuit of strategic autonomy and regional influence.
Despite profound changes in their respective foreign policy orientations—India’s increasing engagement with Western democracies and Russia’s deepening strategic alignment with China—the core foundations of trust, defense collaboration, and shared geopolitical interests have endured. In the post-Soviet era, both countries worked deliberately to maintain and expand ties, culminating in the signing of the Declaration on Strategic Partnership in 2000 and later upgrading it to a "Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership" in 2010. 1 The contemporary relevance of India-Russia relations lies in their ability to adapt and respond to a shifting world order marked by declining U. S. unipolarity, intensifying Sino-American rivalry, and the re-emergence of regional power centers.
The bilateral engagement spans critical areas such as defense cooperation, nuclear energy, hydrocarbons, counter-terrorism, cyber security, space technology, and multilateral diplomacy through platforms such as BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the Russia-India-China (RIC) trilateral. 2 Yet, the relationship is not without its complexities. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and subsequent geopolitical isolation has tested India's balancing strategy between its traditional ally and its strategic engagement with the West. Similarly, Russia’s growing proximity to China—India’s principal regional rival—poses a diplomatic conundrum for New Delhi. Notwithstanding these challenges, the Indo-Russian relationship remains one of strategic depth, pragmatic convergence, and historical continuity.
This paper aims to analyze the trajectory of India-Russia relations through a historical and strategic lens, identify its enduring pillars, and 1 Ministry of External Affairs, Declaration on Strategic Partnership Between the Republic of India and the Russian Federation (Oct. 3, 2000), https://mea. gov. in/bilateral-documents. htm? dtl/6595/. 2 Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan, The Strategic Logic of the India–Russia Partnership, Observer Research Foundation (2022), https://orfonline. org explore the challenges and opportunities that define this crucial bilateral relationship in an increasingly multipolar world. Research Methodology This research is qualitative, analytical, and exploratory in nature. Primary and secondary sources have been consulted, including government documents, treaties, policy papers, expert interviews, journal articles, and official speeches.
A combination of historical, thematic, and comparative methods has been employed to ensure a multidimensional understanding of the bilateral relationship. Background and Historical Context The Foundations of India–Soviet Relations India and the Soviet Union first established diplomatic relations in 1947, the same year India gained independence. While India maintained a non-aligned position during the Cold War, it gravitated towards the Soviet Union owing to overlapping strategic, economic, and ideological interests. The Soviet model of planned economic development aligned with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision of state-led industrialization, and the USSR provided extensive economic and technical assistance to India.
Notably, major public sector projects such as the Bhilai Steel Plant (1955), the Bokaro Steel Plant (1964), and the Heavy Machine Building Plant in Ranchi were built with Soviet cooperation3.
2.2 Political and Diplomatic Convergence
Throughout the Cold War, India and the USSR maintained political solidarity on key international issues. The Soviet Union repeatedly supported India’s position on Jammu and Kashmir in the United Nations Security Council, using its veto to block resolutions deemed unfavorable by New Delhi.4 The bilateral relationship was further strengthened by shared skepticism of Western alliances, particularly the U.S.-led Cold War bloc politics in Asia. India’s ties with the Soviet Union solidified further following its border war with China in 1962 and the U.S.’s military assistance to Pakistan during the 1965 and 1971 Indo-Pak wars. The culmination of this political convergence was the signing of the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Ministry of External Affairs, India-Russia Bilateral Relations (2023), https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Russia_2023.pdf.
4 Harsh V. Pant, India’s Foreign Policy and Russia, 48 Asian Surv. 482, 484 (2008).
and Cooperation in August 1971, which formalized a 20-year strategic partnership5. The treaty offered a security guarantee to India during the Bangladesh Liberation War and effectively deterred U. S. and Chinese intervention in favor of Pakistan. 6 Military and Defense Cooperation The Indo-Soviet relationship extended robustly into the defense sector. From the 1960s onwards, the Soviet Union became India’s primary supplier of military hardware, offering not just equipment but also technology transfer and licensed production. Iconic Indian military assets, including the MiG-21 fighter aircraft, T-55 and T-72 tanks, and Kilo-class submarines, were all procured from the USSR. 7 The Soviets also offered favorable payment terms, often through rupee-ruble trade mechanisms, bypassing the need for U. S. dollars. This made large-scale defense acquisitions more affordable for India.
Joint exercises and military training programs were a regular feature of the defense relationship, fostering long-term institutional familiarity between the two militaries. 8 Post-Soviet Recalibration: 1991–2000 The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked a turning point in the bilateral relationship. India found itself dealing with a nascent Russian Federation that was economically unstable and politically uncertain. Bilateral trade dipped drastically, and many existing defense contracts had to be renegotiated or canceled. 9 However, the long-standing strategic logic of the relationship endured. Russia continued to be India’s main defense partner, and diplomatic channels remained open. The turning point in restoring full-spectrum engagement came with Russian President Vladimir Putin’s visit to India in October 2000.
The two countries signed the Declaration on Strategic Partnership, which laid the groundwork for diversified cooperation in defense, energy, trade, and regional stability. 10
5 Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation, India-U.S.S.R., Aug. 9, 1971, 862 U.N.T.S. 131.
6 Srinath Raghavan, 1971
A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh 191–92 (Harvard Univ. Press 2013).
7 Lora Saalman, Russia and India
A Durable Strategic Partnership, Asia Policy No. 19, 62–65 (2015).
8 Ministry of Defence, Govt. of India, Annual Report 2022–23, https://mod.gov.in/documents/annualreport.
9 Arvind Gupta, Indo-Russian Relations in a Changing World, 34 Strategic Analysis 429 (2010).
10 Ministry of External Affairs, Declaration on Strategic Partnership Between the Republic of India and the Russian Federation (Oct. 3, 2000), From Strategic to Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership The early 2000s saw an acceleration in bilateral cooperation, culminating in the elevation of ties to a: “Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership” in 2010. This rare diplomatic designation signified the unique place Russia held in India’s foreign policy matrix. 11 During this phase, the two countries institutionalized annual summits and signed significant defense and civil nuclear agreements. Russia also supported India’s candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council and backed its inclusion in multilateral export control regimes such as the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and the Wassenaar Arrangement.
12 Continuity Amid Changing Global Orders Despite India’s increasing engagement with the United States and the Indo-Pacific strategy, and Russia’s pivot to China in response to Western sanctions post-2014, both nations have sustained their bilateral momentum. The long history of trust, defense interoperability, and shared visions of multipolarity continue to underpin the relationship. India has maintained a delicate balancing act— pursuing partnerships with Western powers without undermining its time-tested strategic bond with Russia. This balancing has been particularly evident in India’s neutral stance during the Russia- Ukraine conflict, where it called for peace but refrained from condemning Moscow. 13 Key Areas of Cooperation and Strategic Engagement Defense and Strategic Ties India and Russia have historically shared one of the most robust defense relationships globally.
11 Embassy of India, Moscow, India-Russia: Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership, https://indianembassymoscow. gov. in. 12 Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan, The Strategic Logic of the India–Russia Partnership, Observer Research Foundation (2022), https://orfonline. org.
13 Andrew Korybko, India’s Balanced Approach to the Ukraine Conflict, Russian Int’l Affs. Council
(2023), https://russiancouncil. ru The Soviet Union was India's largest defense supplier during the Cold War, and even today, Russia remains a primary source of military equipment for India, accounting for more than 60% of India’s defense imports. 14 Noteworthy collaborations include the S-400 Triumf air defense system deal, the leasing of nuclear-powered submarines such as the INS Chakra, and the co-development of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile. 15 The countries also conduct joint military drills such as Exercise INDRA, which enhance operational interoperability16. Energy and Economic Cooperation Russia plays a pivotal role in India’s energy security strategy. The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, developed in collaboration with Rosatom, is a hallmark of Indo-Russian civil nuclear cooperation.
17 Additionally, Indian public-sector firms have invested in Russian oil and gas assets like Vankorneft and Sakhalin-1, while Russian company Rosneft holds stakes in Indian energy ventures such as Nayara Energy. 18The economic ties are expanding with bilateral trade surpassing $30 billion in 2022, largely due to energy imports. Efforts like the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and proposed Free Trade Agreement with the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) aim to boost connectivity and trade. 19 Space and Scientific Collaboration India and Russia share a legacy of space cooperation, beginning with the launch of Aryabhata in 1975 using a Soviet rocket. Russia is also assisting India with its Gaganyaan mission, aimed at sending Indian astronauts to space.
20 Moreover, both countries have initiated dialogues on cooperation in emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, and quantum computing. 21 14 Ministry of Defence, Gov’t of India, Annual Report 2022–23, https://mod. gov. in/documents/annualreport. 15 Press Trust of India, India Signs $5. 4 Billion Deal with Russia to Procure S-400 Missile Systems, The Economic Times (Oct. 5, 2018), https://economictimes. indiatimes. com/news/defence/
16 Ministry of External Affairs, India-Russia Bilateral Relations Brief (2023), https://mea.gov.in
17 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd., Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project, https://npcil.nic.in.
18 Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, India-Russia Energy Cooperation Overview (2023),
https://petroleum.nic.in
19 Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Bilateral Trade Agreements Overview, https://commerce.gov.in.
20 Embassy of India, Moscow, India-Russia Science & Technology Cooperation,
https://indianembassymoscow. gov. in 21 Harsh V. Pant & Anant Rej, India-Russia Ties in the Age of Multipolarity, Inst. for Def. Stud. & Analyses (2022), https://idsa. in Multilateral and Global Cooperation India and Russia consistently cooperate in multilateral forums like BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the Russia-India-China (RIC) trilateral grouping. 9 These platforms reflect their joint commitment to a multipolar world order and equitable global governance. Russia has backed India’s bid for permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council and its entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group. 22 Such support underscores shared diplomatic goals and mutual geopolitical trust.
Challenges in the Indo-Russian Relationship Despite the longstanding strategic partnership between India and Russia, the bilateral relationship faces several emerging and structural challenges. These issues, while not insurmountable, require nuanced diplomacy and adaptive policymaking from both nations. Diverging Geopolitical Alignments India's deepening engagement with the United States, particularly within the framework of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), has caused concern in Moscow, which views such groupings as tools of Western containment. 23 Conversely, Russia’s growing strategic embrace of China—evident through military cooperation, energy deals, and diplomatic coordination— raises apprehensions in New Delhi, especially in light of India’s ongoing border tensions with China.
24 While both India and Russia maintain that their bilateral ties are independent of thirdparty relations, these strategic realignments test the resilience of their partnership. Impact of the Ukraine Conflict India’s neutral stance on Russia’s invasion of Ukraine—manifested through abstentions at the United Nations—has placed it in a delicate position globally. 25 While India has called for
22 Ministry of External Affairs, India’s Multilateral Engagements, https://mea.gov.in
23 Ministry of External Affairs, India–U.S. Bilateral Relations Brief (2023), https://mea.gov.in.
24 Alexander Gabuev, The Russia-China Axis
A New Normal in Eurasian Geopolitics, Carnegie Endowment for Int’l Peace (Feb. 2023), https://carnegieendowment. org 25 Ministry of External Affairs, India’s Statement at the UN General Assembly on Ukraine (Mar. 2022), https://mea. gov. in. diplomacy and dialogue, its balancing act between Western partners and Russia has led to criticism and pressure from both sides. Moreover, sanctions on Russia have complicated defense and energy transactions, including delayed payments and impediments to technology transfers. 26 These constraints challenge India’s procurement pipelines and long-term strategic planning. Declining Trade Diversity and Private Sector Participation Although bilateral trade surged past $30 billion in 2022, the relationship remains heavily skewed toward defense and energy sectors, with limited participation from the private sector and a lack of diversified trade.
27 Indian exports to Russia remain low, and there is minimal engagement in technology, services, and startups. 28 Structural barriers such as banking sanctions, lack of logistics infrastructure, and regulatory incompatibility further inhibit broader economic integration. Perception Gap and Public Diplomacy Deficit Public perception of the Indo-Russian relationship in India is increasingly shaped by Western narratives and media coverage, particularly among younger demographics 29. Conversely, India receives limited cultural and media exposure within Russia beyond official channels. The lack of substantial people-to-people connections, tourism, and academic exchanges leads to a deficit in public diplomacy and societal-level understanding, potentially eroding the long-term base of the partnership.
Future Prospects and Strategic Recommendations As the global order transitions toward multipolarity, India and Russia must recalibrate their bilateral agenda to ensure relevance, resilience, and reciprocity. While traditional areas of cooperation remain crucial, diversification into new sectors, enhanced multilateral synergy, and public diplomacy are essential for sustaining momentum. 26 Snehesh Alex Philip, India Faces Payment Delays for Russian Arms Over Sanctions, The Print (Mar. ), https://theprint. in 27 Ministry of Commerce & Industry, India-Russia Bilateral Trade Statistics (2022–23), https://commerce. gov. in 28 Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan, India’s Economic Engagement with Russia: Beyond Energy, Observer Research Found. (2022), https://orfonline. org 29 Harsh V. Pant, The Limits of India–Russia Strategic Convergence, Inst. for Def. Stud. & Analyses (2022), https://idsa. in.
Diversifying Beyond Defence While defense cooperation is foundational, overdependence risks vulnerability to sanctions and technology limitations. Future collaboration should prioritize non-traditional sectors like pharmaceuticals, fintech, agriculture, and information technology. 30 Joint ventures and industrial partnerships can unlock new avenues for economic synergy, particularly under the "Make in India" initiative, where Russian companies can benefit from India’s large market and manufacturing ecosystem. 31 Deepening Energy and Arctic Engagement Russia, as a key supplier of oil and gas, can support India's energy security goals through longterm supply contracts, investments in infrastructure, and exploration projects. 32 India’s participation in Russia’s Arctic ventures, such as the Yamal LNG project, offers strategic and economic benefits.
33 Additionally, cooperation in civilian nuclear energy should expand, with more reactors built on the lines of the Kudankulam model. Multilateral Coordination in Emerging Institutions Platforms like BRICS+, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) offer fertile ground for aligning interests34. Joint leadership in these organizations can help shape alternative global governance models based on sovereignty, inclusivity, and multipolarity. Strengthening India’s role in the Eurasian region through connectivity projects like the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) remains vital. 35 Enhancing People-to-People and Educational Ties To address the perception gap, robust people-to-people diplomacy is necessary.
Establishing dualdegree programs, language institutes, tourism corridors, and youth exchanges can promote 30 Ministry of Commerce & Industry, India-Russia Trade and Investment Brief (2023), https://commerce. gov. in 31 Press Information Bureau, Government of India, "Make in India" Progress Report (2023), https://pib. gov. in 32 Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Energy Cooperation with Russia (2023), https://petroleum. nic. in 33 Alexey Knizhnikov, Russia’s Arctic Energy Ambitions, WWF Arctic Programme (2022), https://arcticwwf. org.
34 BRICS Joint Statement, 15th BRICS Summit (Johannesburg, 2023), https://brics2023.gov.za.
35 Ministry of External Affairs, India’s Engagement with Eurasian Institutions (2023), https://mea. gov. in. mutual understanding. 36 Russia can emerge as a significant destination for Indian students in medicine and technology, while Indian universities can host more Russian scholars and researchers. Financial Mechanisms and De-Dollarization To bypass sanctions and ensure smooth trade, India and Russia should operationalize alternative payment systems using local currencies or digital mechanisms like RuPay and Mir cards. 37 These innovations can facilitate trade continuity while reducing dependence on Western financial channels. Conclusion India-Russia relations have endured through seismic shifts in international politics—from the ideological divides of the Cold War to the fluid alignments of a multipolar world.
What began as a relationship grounded in shared geopolitical interests and defense cooperation has matured into a multifaceted strategic partnership encompassing energy, space, technology, and multilateral diplomacy. Despite divergences in global alignments—such as India’s engagement with the West and Russia’s deepening ties with China—both nations have maintained a steady, pragmatic, and respectful bilateral relationship. India's consistent position of strategic autonomy and Russia's recognition of India's rising global stature have enabled this continuity. However, sustaining this trajectory requires addressing critical challenges, including trade imbalance, private sector under-engagement, and geopolitical recalibrations following the Ukraine crisis. The future of the partnership lies in diversification—both sectorally and diplomatically.
A shift toward enhanced economic, academic, technological, and people-topeople cooperation will insulate the relationship from overreliance on defense and geopolitical convergences. Ultimately, in an era marked by strategic ambiguity and competing alliances, the India-Russia partnership must evolve beyond nostalgia into a forward-looking, multidimensional engagement. Doing so will not only reinforce bilateral ties but also contribute
36 Russian Centre of Science and Culture, India-Russia Cultural and Academic Cooperation (2023),
https://rcscnewdelhi.gov.ru. 37 Reserve Bank of India, Trade Settlement Mechanism in INR for International Trade (2022), https://rbi.org.in. meaningfully to a more balanced, inclusive, and multipolar world order.