Gene Editing For De-Extinction - Legal, Ethical And Environmental Challenges Of Crispr-Based Resurrection Biology
Author: LawSphereX
Category: Environmental Law
Published:
Updated:
GENE EDITING FOR DE-EXTINCTION: LEGAL, ETHICAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CHALLENGES
OF CRISPR-BASED RESURRECTION BIOLOGY Abinaya R M, LL.M. (Natural Resources Law), Tamil Nadu National Law University, Tiruchirappalli
ABSTRACT
The rapid loss of biodiversity and advancement in the genome engineering technologies especially the innovation of CRISP Cas9 has made deextinction from being a scientific fiction to reality. The concept of deextinction not only aims at recreating the extinct species, rather, the very purpose is to restore the ecological functions. This article explores the legal, environmental and ethical dimensions of de-extinction under the context of conservation, and also the patentability of the species. De-extinction does not stop with recreating a particular species, rather, the ultimate goal is to release it in the wild. The environmental release could be a serious concern, when the change in the ecosystem and the adaptability of the existing ecosystem is concerned. It cannot be always said that the circumstances which existed while the organisms were alive currently exists.
It also has the potential to alter the existing food webs, bring in invasive species, etc. Secondly, when it comes to legal issues, though there are frameworks for species protection, it is utmost imperative to classify them first before trying to fit it in under different heads. Whether a particular species has to be considered as the same that has become extinct or should it be considered a totally new species is another concern. Ethically, deextinction raises concerns about altering natural processes, diverting attention from conservation efforts, etc. This paper concludes that, while de-extinction open avenues for ecological restoration, it should be integrated with the traditional conservation strategies and should not be considered as a standalone solution. A precautionary approach is recommended while backed up by strong legal frameworks to ensure responsible de-extinction.
1 INTRODUCTION
“If extinction is not forever, a lot changes” - Stanley Temple1 The loss of biodiversity is accelerating at a steady and unprecedented phase. As per the IUCN Red List data, around 902 species are already extinct and around 9,251 are critically endangered. 2 Human influence is spread over in every corner of the earth despite of the fact that it is remote or not. Further, Nations have also set various targets with respect to conservation of biodiversity in compliance with several international instruments. 3 The rapid development in the field of genome engineering such as CRISPR-Cas9 has opened up new opportunities in biological research. Through gene editing, precise modifications can be made on DNA, thereby enabling scientists to correct genetic disorders, alter genes with desired traits and can even resurrect species that are already extinct.
4 De-extinction, also known as resurrection biology is the process of bringing back or recreating the organisms that resemble the extinct one. The following definition includes all the necessary elements for a sustainable de-extinction. “The process of generating an organism that both resembles and is genetically similar to an extinct species by resurrecting its lost lineage of core genes; engineering natural resistances; and enhancing adaptability that will allow it to thrive in today’s environment of climate change, dwindling resources, disease and human interference. ” The object behind this de-extinction is not just to bring back the extinct species and to have neutral extinction, but also to serve ecological functions and ecosystem restoration. Examples include the project for resurrection of Woolly mammoth, passenger pigeon, dire
1 Curt Meine, De‐extinction and the Community of Being, 47 HASTINGS CENTER REPORT (2017),
https://www.jstor.org/stable/26625192 (last visited Apr 28, 2025).
2 THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES, IUCN RED LIST, https://www.iucnredlist.org/ (last visited
Apr 11, 2025). 3 Genetic Frontiers for Conservation: An assessment of synthetic biology and biodiversity conservation, IUCN, GLAND 184 (2019).
4 Jennifer A. Doudna & Emmanuelle Charpentier, The New Frontier of Genome Engineering with CRISPR-Cas9,
346 AAAS 11 (2014).
wolf, etc. 5 Whether the new technology has to be welcomed as it has potential solutions, or is it the one to afraid of due to the associated impacts of novelty, ecological problems, and other socio-economic problems is another concern that should not be overlooked. 6 De-extinction raises question including the ownership responsibility in relation to deextinct animals. In most of the context, wildlife is considered as common property until the same has been captured, however, de-extinction poses questions quite contrary to the context. Outputs of de-extinction project may also be eligible for patents based on the novelty or process. Though de-extinction has the possibility of restoring the ecology, it also raises concerns relating to the ethical challenges and environmental impact, further it also has the potential to alter the food web through a phenomenon called hysteresis.
7 There should a clear cut legal and regulatory framework for its proper governance in order to promote sustainable development. This study analyses the creation, releasing in the wild and other environment implications relating to de-extinction, along with the regulations, guidelines and other legal frameworks pertaining to the same.
2. GENE EDITING AND CRISPR-CAS9 TECHNOLOGY
a) Overview: The process of de-extinction has taken a shift from being a science fiction to reality due to advancement of technology that enables reading and manipulation of genetic code. The primary objective for the creation of these proxies is to restore the ecological and other functions that would have lost due to the extinction of the species.8 The creation of proxy species via genome engineering technologies such as CRISPR has the potential to improve the accuracy, and further reduce the costs associated with proxy creation.\ 5 De-Extinction, COLOSSAL LABORATORIES & BIOSCIENCES, https://colossal.com/de-extinction/ (last visited Apr 11, 2025).
6 Kent H. Redford et al., Synthetic Biology and the Conservation of Biodiversity, 48 FAUNA & FLORA
INTERNATIONAL, ORYX 330 (2014).
Reintroduction of the Top Predator,
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/reintroduction-top-predator/ (last visited Apr 27, 2025). 8 IUCN Species Survival Commission, IUCN SSC Guiding Principles on Creating Proxies of Extinct Species for Conservation Benefit, Version 1.0. IUCN SCC 22 (2016).
At present, only three methods are recognised with regard to creation of proxy species, they are cloning, selective breeding and genome engineering. In genome engineering, the extinct species’ genome is first read by using the specimens preserved likely in the museum, the genome sequence will be formed. Bioinformatics is used to reconstruct the incomplete genomes by filling the same with DNA that has been taken from a nearest living species. Similarly, the cell lines will also be formed from a living relative. Now, using CRISPR-Cas9, the cell line is edited and replaced using the sequence of the extinct species. The nucleus is then inserted to a cell that is capable of forming an embryo, then the embryo is implanted into the surrogate mother. 9 Genome engineering can be applied in various fields such as drug development, animal models, food, fuel, gene surgery, etc.
Further, the employment of genome engineering technologies is efficient and cost effective, as it provides for precise editing, thereby avoiding off target alterations. 10 b) Case Studies Woolly Mammoth: Woolly Mammoth of Arctic Tundra died around 10,000 years ago. Scientists are using CRISPR to splice the bits of woolly mammoth DNA into the genome taken from the nearest living relative, the Asian elephant. The aim of this project is to restore the ecosystem by adapting the resulting “mammophant” to the cold Siberian tundra. 11 The introduction of this mammoth back into the ecosystem is expected to increase the resilience of those habitats to the impacts of climate change and upheaval of environment. 12 Passenger Pigeon: Works are being underway for the reintroduction of passenger pigeons into the forests.
Before the extinction of this bird in the year 1914, they were abundant in North America, and other parts of the world. Industrial scale hunting took away the life of billions of birds. At present, the role of these passenger pigeons are being studied and there is a plan to take the gene sequence from the specimens found
9 Id.
10 Patrick D. Hsu, Eric S. Lander & Feng Zhang, Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering, 157 CELL 1262 (2014).
11 Jasmin Fox-Skelly, How Extinct Animals Could Be Brought Back from the Dead, BBC, Apr. 8, 2025,
https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230113-how-extinct-animals-could-be-brought-back-from-the-dead (last visited Apr 11, 2025).
12 The Mammoth, COLOSSAL LABORATORIES & BIOSCIENCES, https://colossal.com/mammoth/ (last visited Apr
11, 2025). in museum and find the unique traits that makes it possible for those birds to flock in the dense forest. 13 De-extinction research on those passenger pigeons includes the process of genome sequencing with ongoing plans to integrate their preserved DNA with that of band-tailed pigeons. 14 Dire Wolf: The myth about de-extinction has been finally translated into reality by Colossal Biosciences. On 01. 10. 2024, Colossal has restored a once eradicated dire wolf. Dire wolves have dominated the US and Canada, 13,000 years ago before they went extinct. The specimen used for this project is a tooth which is about 13,000 years old, and a skull which is 72,000-year-old. 15 These two samples were taken by Colossal and a whole genome sequence was made, later on it is used for mapping the nearest relative.
Blood has been drawn from the grey wolf; the specific cell has been isolated and it was cloned. The genome of the grey wolf has been altered to the genome of the extinct dire wolf, with specific focus on the traits and characters that is want to be seen in that species. 16 c) Challenges: Various challenges that are associated with the use of CRISPR Cas9 is non-target mutations17, incomplete and degraded DNA sequence, potential invasiveness,18 altered ecosystem, etc. , as it could not be said that the ecosystem would remain the same all these years right from the extinction of those keystone species19.
3. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS
a) Rio Declaration, 1992: Principle 15 of the Declaration mandates States to apply precautionary approach, and provides that where there any serious threats, lack of any 13 Lorin Cox, With Plan to Revive Extinct Passenger Pigeon Species, Researchers Are Testing Wisconsin Trees, WISONSIN PUBLIC RADIO (2024), https://www.wpr.org/news/revive-extinct-passenger-pigeon-species-researchwisconsin-trees (last visited Apr 11, 2025). 14 R.X. Valdez, J Kuzma, & C.L. Cummings, Anticipating Risks, Governance Needs, and Public Perceptions of de-Extinction, 6 JOURNAL OF RESPONSIBLE INNOVATION 211 (2019). 15 Alind Chauhan, “De-Extinction”: Has an American Company Brought the Dire Wolf Back from the Dead?, THE INDIAN EXPRESS: JOURNALISM OF COURAGE, Apr. 8, 2025, https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/dire-wolves-de-extinction-colossal-9932402/ (last visited Apr 12, 2025).
16 THE MAKING
OF THE COLOSSAL DIRE WOLVES - WORLD’S FIRST DE-EXTINCTION, (2025), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5uCuOwK_VE&t=1s (last visited Apr 12, 2025). 17 Fatma Betül Ayanoğlu, Ayşe Eser Elçı̇N & Yaşar Murat Elçı̇N, Bioethical Issues in Genome Editing by CRISPR-Cas9 Technology, 44 TURK J BIOL 110 (2020).
18 Victoria Gill, Experts Dispute Claim Dire Wolf Brought Back from Extinction, BBC, Apr. 8, 2025,
http://bbc.com/news/articles/c4g9ejy3gdvo (last visited Apr 12, 2025).
19 Jasmin Fox-Skelly, supra note 17.
scientific certainty cannot be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent degradation of environment. b) IUCN SSC Guidelines: In order to achieve the benefit of conservation, the proxies formed out of de-extinction need to be far from laboratory test cases or mere attractions. Those species would need to be translocated to suitable habitats where they would interact with other species. IUCN SCC considers that, though genome engineering poses various risks, there also exists a potential to derive conservation benefits; and hence IUCN SCC has given few guiding principles that is to be followed for the effective utilisation of genome engineering. The principles provide for various technologies that are involved in creation of proxies, advantages and disadvantages, legal and other considerations, etc.
20 c) CPB: This applies to the transboundary movement, handling, use and transit of LMOs that have the possibility of having adverse effect on the conservation and sustainable use. It also put forth the Advance Informed Agreement which enables the importing countries to make informed decisions before agreeing for the import of LMOs within their territory. 21 d) CBD: The Convention was opened for signature in the year 1992, and has come into force in the year 1993. 22 The object of the convention is “conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. ” De-extinct species can be brought under the definition of biological diversity and biological resources. The convention provides for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of species.
Further, Article 8(g) specially provides as follows: “Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate: establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or control the risks associated with the use and release of living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology which are likely to have adverse environmental
20 IUCN Species Survival Commission, supra note 14.
21 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Safety, SECRETARIAT OF THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 36 (2000).
22 History of the Convention, THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY, https://www. cbd. int/history (last visited Apr 12, 2025). impacts that could affect the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account the risks to human health. ”23 e) CITES: It was drafted as a result of the IUCN meeting resolution in the year 1963. 24 The main object is to protect the species of wild flora and fauna from over-exploitation through international trade. 25 The species that are covered under CITES are provided under Appendices I, II and III. The 3 Appendices provides difference levels of protection. Except as provided in the convention, parties are prohibited from trading of those listed species. However, CITES does not address the trade of de-extinct species.
Should the de-extinct species be removed from the Appendices or should it be added under different category is still a question. Further, the preamble of the CITES provides for restriction in the trade of wild flora and fauna, here, the use of word wild suggests that it only applies to naturally wild species and not de-extinct species. Whether, the new species would be considered as a species before it was extinct or a whole new category. If at all they are protected under Appendices I, as per Article VII (4), species that are bred in captivity only receives a lesser protection. 26 f) Oviedo Convention: Oviedo Convention governs the use of biology and medicine on humans. This convention doesn’t cover the aspects of de-extinction. However, it can be inferred with regard to the balance between research and benefit.
As per Article 16 of the Convention, research on person can be undertaken, inter alia only under the following substances – when there is no alternative method, benefits outweigh the risks, it has been approved by the competent authority after conducting proper impact assessment. Applying this to the present case, put forth the need for proper assessment. 27 g) CMS: It has been concluded in the year 1979, and it officially came into force in the year 1983. The main aim of this convention is the conservation and sustainable
23 Convention on Biological Diversity, (1992).
24 What is CITES?, CITES, https://cites.org/eng/disc/what.php (last visited Apr 12, 2025).
25 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 16.
26 Erin Okuno, Frankenstein’s Mammoth
Anticipating the Global Legal Framework For De-Extinction, 43 ECOLOGY LAW QUARTERLY 583 (2016).
27 Council of Europe, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with Regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, (1997). management of migratory species.28 The convention provides list of migratory species in Appendices I & II, for which the level of protection is varied.29 The above stated Conventions address the LMOs in general, but cannot be straight away applied to de-extinct species, as the prima facie issue as to the classification has to be looked into, only then protection can be granted. If the same is to be classified under a different category, then it would be time to rethink, whether the phrase de-extinction suits the process.
4. LEGAL, ETHICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
4.1. LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS
De-extinction questions the very basis of classification as to under which category the deextinct species would be categorized under. These further sabotages the legal protection which is based on the taxonomic classification and classification of species. Further, the legal framework divides the species under various categories and accordingly, the level of protection varies. Here arises a question as to whether the de-extinct species has to be given the status of extinct species or should be accorded different protection. 30 When it comes to de-extinction of dire wolf, there is still controversy as to whether it could be considered as dire wolf or grey wolf. De-extinction is not about creating 100% of genetically identical species, rather to create functional copies of the extinct species.
However, while making the dire wolf, the scientists have made 20 edits in 14 genes while cloning. Hence, there are arguments as to whether it can be considered as dire wolf or grey wolf. 31 One another issue is, what protection has to be provided for de-extinct species. One possibility is that the protection which was granted to the species before it was extinct could be granted. However, the problem is that the species would have been extinct way back in the ancient period, during which no international and domestic protections would CMS, CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES OF WILD ANIMALS, https://www. cms. int/en/legalinstrument/cms (last visited Apr 12, 2025).
29 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
30 Jessica Allen et al., De-Extinction, Regulation and Nature Conservation, 32 JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
309 (2020).
31 Katie Hunt, Scientists Say They Have Resurrected the Dire Wolf, CNN SCIENCE (2025),
https://edition. cnn. com/2025/04/07/science/dire-wolf-de-extinction-cloning-colossal/index. html (last visited Apr 12, 2025). have existed. On the other hand, even if legal framework had existed, mostly the protection would be based for the purpose of using it for gaming and hunting purpose, which cannot be applied for present circumstances. 32 Another question that raises concern is with regard to the patentability of the resurrected species. Even though, the ultimate goal of resurrection is to reestablish the species that was extinct, the projects could also generate considerable economic value. Exclusive rights over a resurrected species could also provide a stream of revenue to recover the costs and also to generate funding for carrying out these projects.
Hence, the question here is whether the resurrected species could be patentable or not, which is closely connected with ownership and liability or responsibility. For answering the said question, one of the landmark cases can be looked into, i. e. , Diamond v. Chakrabarty. The issue in that case is whether the living micro-organisms constitutes composition of matter or manufacture as per Section 101 of the Act. The Hon’ble SC held that, whether a particular organism is alive or not is of no significance in patent law, and the point is that, whether it is a product of nature or is it derived as a result of human invention. 33 The Court further observed that the Congress intends to place within the scope of patent “anything under the sun that is made by man”. This judgment has been further confirmed by the Supreme Court in the subsequent case in the year 2013.
The Court held that, isolation of DNA is not patentable, however, cDNA is patentable, as it not naturally occurring. cDNA is one which have exons but introns, and thus not naturally occurring. 34 Applying the aforesaid context to the present case of de-extinction or resurrection, it can be inferred that, any manipulation made to the naturally occurring genome is patentable. Hence, as in resurrection, the degraded genome is reconstructed, and then the genome of the nearest living relative is altered with the characteristics of the extinct species and then through somatic cell nuclear transfer, embryo has been formed and then inserted into the surrogate mother; the process requires extensive manipulation of genome, and hence can be patentable. The court also has to see which component to be given importance, the
32 Allen et al., supra note 36.
33 Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980), http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/303/case.html (last visited Apr 28, 2025).
34 Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics Inc, 133 S. Ct. 2107, 2116 (2013).
surface similarity or the genetic distinctiveness35 Another consideration for the purpose of patentability is novelty, as it is the resurrection of extinction species, and not the creation of new one. For this purpose, the extent of genetic distinctiveness has to be taken into account. When it comes to dire wolf, 14 editing has been done in order to make the grey wolf have the characteristics of dire wolf. Many contend that it is not a dire wolf, rather a grey wolf. Hence, in order to answer this, the genetic similarity and dissimilarity has to be taken into account. In addition to that, public order and morality is a ground for rejecting the grant of patent, which would prevent potential implications.36 Further, it should also be noted that, the CRISPR technology itself is patentable, which further raises concerns with regard to delay in research, monopoly, innovation, etc.37
4.2. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Among all the emerging issues such as the possibility of recreating species that are extinct, the impact on existing species, concerns on public safety, one other consideration that needs to be addressed is the definition of “natural”. 38 It taps the deep cultural theme intrinsically connected to life and death. Further, extinction serves as a reminder putting forth the importance of self-restraint. By making an attempt to reverse this process, over simplifies the concept of de-extinction and make humans lose sight of the lessons learnt from extinction, and may also lead to over exploitation. 39 Further, change in the perception of the public would have the possibility of undermining the conservation efforts, if the de-extinction is seen as a fix to the crisis of loss of biodiversity and extinction of species.
There is also a growing concern that the main purpose of creating proxy species is for attaining commercial gain rather than conservation. 40 35 Norman F. Carlin, Ilan Wurman, & Tamara Zakim, How to Permit Your Mammoth: Some Legal Implications of De-Extinction, STANFORD ENVIRONMENTAL LAW JOURNAL (2013), https://heinonline. org/HOL/P? h=hein. journals/staev33&i=1 (last visited Apr 28, 2025).
36 Id.
CRISPR:
the gene editing tool and related patents, VENNER SHIPLEY (2018), https://www.vennershipley.com/insights-events/crispr-the-gene-editing-tool-and-related-patents/ (last visited Apr 28, 2025).
38 Can Synthetic Biology Save Wildlife?, WCS NEWSROOM (2013), https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-
Releases/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/4833/Can-Synthetic-Biology-Save-Wildlife.aspx (last visited Apr 10, 2025).
39 Meine, supra note 1.
40 IUCN Species Survival Commission, supra note 14.
Looking at the case of bucardo, there is concern with regard to de-extinction as Asian Elephant from which the eggs will be taken itself is endangered.41
4.3. ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
“A species is more than its genome; it is the unique expression and evolution of the genome, through a vital population, interacting with and within a unique physical, biological, and social environment. ”42 The main purpose of resurrection is the restoration of ecosystem. However, the ecosystem characteristics that existed during the time of existence of those species might have undergone a drastic change. Hence, re-introduction of those species may not serve the purpose, and there is a possibility of that species turning invasive. Further, during the course of evolution, other species would have come into existence in the place of the earlier one in the ecosystem. 43 Introduction of de-extinct species back into the ecosystem have many potential implications including disease transmission, competition between natural species, trophic cascades, effect on food chain, etc.
44 Another concern against this de-extinction is that it is against the act of God, and that it leads to cruelty to the animals, either by way of using it for experimental purpose or causing the death of the species, as the genetically modified species are generally short lived. 45 More than the production or manufacture of extinct species, what rises severe concern is the environmental release of those species. As per Rule 3(iv) of the “Rule for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro Organisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells”, resurrected animals are formed using genetic
41 Joseph Meaney, The Bioethics of De-Extinction, THE NATIONAL CATHOLIC BIOETHICS CENTER.
42 Meine, supra note 1.
43 Mika Black, Emma Weir, & E. Alexandra Panagiotou, De-Extinction as a Means of Restoring Biodiversity, DEBATING SCIENCE (2015), https://websites.umass.edu/natsci397a-eross/de-extinction-as-a-means-of-restoringbiodiversity/#:~:text=Resurrecting%20extinct%20species%20is%20now,negative%20impact%20that%20huma ns%20placed. (last visited Apr 13, 2025). 44 Rene X. Valdez et al., Anticipating Risks, Governance Needs, and Public Perceptions of de-Extinction, 6 JOURNAL OF RESPONSIBLE INNOVATION 211 (2019).
45 Patrick Whittle, De-Extinction
The Second Coming, GENETIC LITERACY PROJECT: SCIENCE NOT IDEOLOGY (2023), https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2023/03/15/de-extinction-the-second-coming/ (last visited Apr 13, 2025). engineering. Hence, environmental release cannot be made environmental release without the approval of GEAC.46 The balance between the risks and benefits derived out of it depends upon the choice of species, methods used to resurrect, change in the ecology, ecological function they perform. However, de-extinction should complement the traditional conservation effort and not replace them.
5. SUGGESTION AND
CONCLUSION
Everyone is concerned about climate crisis, but what the world is facing now which is of equal importance to climate crisis is biodiversity crisis. One of the things that is critical to the ecosystem are the predators. They are crucial for reshaping the ecosystem. The example could be inferred from the Yellowstone National Park, wherein the introduction of wolf has reshaped the water system, brought back beavers, song birds, etc. 47 Hence, conservation of keystone species are critical for the environment and ecosystem. De-extinction offers solution to the greatest problem that is de-extinction. However, instead of using de-extinction or resurrection biology as a standalone solution, it has to be integrated with the other conservation strategies. This would prevent pyrrhic victory scenario and promotes a sustainable conservation of species.
In addition to that, the selection of species for de-extinction purpose should follow the principle of ecological significance, rather than merely being charismatic. Further, for the effective conservation of the existing and de-extinct species, the de-extinct species could be listed under the different head, so that it would not impact the conservation mechanism of the existing species. In addition to that, this process also raises concerns over implications in law, ethics and environmental protection. The present legal frameworks are not equipped to address the unique challenges they pose, leaving questions regarding the patentability, ownership, etc. 46 Ministry of Environment and Forests, Rules for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro Organisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, (1989).
47 Brodie Farquhar, Wolf Reintroduction Changes Ecosystem in Yellowstone, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
TRIPS (2025), https://www.yellowstonepark.com/things-to-do/wildlife/wolf-reintroduction-changes-ecosystem/ (last visited Apr 13, 2025).
The use of resurrection biology for conservation should incorporate environmental concerns, religious and ethical values, and the same has to assessed on a case-by-case basis. 48 The main purpose is for ecological restoration, hence in situ conservation is ideal. However, considering the drastic change that the ecosystem has undergone including climate change, habitat loss and interaction with new species, the ecosystem might not be suitable for the de-extinct species. Hence, laboratory conservation during the initial stage; ex situ for a certain period of time, till the new species adopt to the new ecosystem is a practical approach; and in situ conservation could be a long-term goal. The same is happening in the case of dire wolf. De-extinction or resurrection is not limited to fauna.
It can be extended to flora as well, and one such success story is Judean Date Palm Tree case, wherein the palm seeds that is stored in an ancient jar has been found out in the ruins. Through radiocarbon dating, it was found that the seeds dated back between 155 BC to 64 AD. 49 De-extinction should be one among the options, and not the only choice. 48 Synthetic biology and its implications for biodiversity conservation, IUCN, https://iucn. org/resources/issuesbrief/synthetic-biology-and-its-implications-biodiversity-conservation (last visited Mar 4, 2025).
49 Root & Vine, From Extinction to Resurrection
The Judean Date Palm Tree, ROOT & VINE (2021), https://rootandvine.com/from-extinction-to-resurrection-the-judean-date-palm-tree/ (last visited Apr 28, 2025).
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