Sexual Violence Against Women - Understanding Cross-Cultural Intersection

Author: LawSphereX

Category: General Law

Published: 2026-08-23T21:04:44.257+00:00

Updated: 2026-08-30T07:11:00.235Z

SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN:

UNDERSTANDING CROSS-CULTURAL INTERSECTION

Soumya Jha, KIIT School of Law

ABSTRACT

Whether it is sexual or not, interpersonal violence is still a serious issue in many parts of the world. Sexual abuse against women and children has longterm psychological and social repercussions. In addition to the act of sexual satisfaction, real or perceived power imbalances between men and women are frequently the cause of sexual violence against women. Cultural norms and values also play a significant role in this phenomenon. The gender roles and representations, as well as the attitudes toward sexual assault, vary across sociocentric and egocentric cultures. Societies classified as feminist grant equal power to men and women. Cultures that promote the idea that males are superior and women are inferior on a social and cultural level are likely to have higher rates of sexual assault against women.

Cultures that promote the idea that males are superior and women are inferior on a social and cultural level are likely to have higher rates of sexual assault against women. While culture plays a significant role in understanding sexual violence overall, we also need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of other cultural systems. Keywords: Culture, Gender, Sexual Violence, Women

INTRODUCTION

There is a common occurrence of interpersonal violence directed towards a real or perceived weaker partner. Regardless of a victim's gender, sexual assault is an extremely harmful and traumatic life event that has far-reaching psychological and sociological repercussions. It frequently results in a wide spectrum of unpleasant feelings, humiliation, and existential queries such "Why me? " It makes the victim feel more helpless and weaker, which lowers their self-esteem and raises the possibility that they could be the target of more violence. Women's fear of sexual violence is probably going to limit their mobility and career options as well as have an impact on their long-term psychological health.

Because of the associated societal stigma and humiliation for the victim and those connected to them, as well as a combination of ignorance and inexperience in asking significant personal questions about sexual violence, sexual violence is rarely discussed in professional settings. With overtones of patriarchy, misogyny, and gender shame, it is a social and health issue. "Any sexual act or an attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments, or advances, acts to traffic or otherwise directed, against a person's sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim in any setting, including but not limited to home and work1," is how the World Health Organization (WHO) defines sexual violence. Every culture2 has different ideas of what constitutes sexual violence3, but it still occurs.

The cross-cultural dimensions of gender-based sexual violence against women are examined in this research. In this work, we concentrate on male-female sexual violence, however there are other types of sexual violence as well (such as male-transgender and male-male). Cultural and Sexual Violence: The Intersections The culture that a person is born into and grows up in greatly influences the values, attitudes, and behaviors that person possesses today. Definitions and descriptions of normalcy and psychopathology are shaped by culture. The way that certain groups and communities interpret, understand, and deal with sexual actions and sexual violence is greatly influenced by their cultural background. 1 Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002. World Health Organization. World report on violence and health. 2 Rozee PD. Forbidden or forgiven? Rape in cross-cultural perspective.

Psychol Women Q. 1993; 17:499–514. 3 Heise L, Moore K, Toubia N. Defining “coercion” and “consent” cross-culturally. SIECUS Rep. 1996; 24:12–4 The use of "coercion" or force is a key component of the WHO definition of sexual violence4, and it's likely that cultural norms regarding what constitutes "forced" sexual relations varies. A continuum with transgressive compulsion at one end and accepted coercion at the other is created by the various cultures' descriptions of sexual violence, which characterize some types as unacceptable and others as maybe tolerable. These forms of violence are known as culturally legitimized forms of violence5. For instance, under the apartheid regime in South Africa, sexual violence against black women was tolerated and only cases of rape of white women were prosecuted.

In some rural parts of India, marriage and sexual intercourse with a girl who is not yet an adult is included in childhood marriages6. As such, it is prohibited and amounts to sexual coercion. But the whole matter is legitimized by private rules set by those who engage in these kinds of marriages, which are approved by Khap Panchayats7, who select couples for marriage in some regions of North India. Similarly, young males in South Africa who think that not having sex has a detrimental impact on mental health regard sexual violence as acceptable. Prevalence From observations and literature on interpersonal violence (IPV) in the context of sexual actions, cultural dimensions of sexual violence can be understood. It is believed that cultures that promote the objectification of women, making them seem inferior to men8, will have higher incidences of sexual violence.

Due to the sensitive nature9 of the subject, not all occurrences of sexual violence are reported to the appropriate authorities; as a result, it can be challenging to determine precise statistics and the full scope of the issue. Up to 67%–84% of cases of sexual violence may remain unreported10. It has been suggested that some Asian societies, where virginity is highly prized and a woman's modesty is crucial to earning her

4 Thompson NJ, Potter JS, Sanderson CA, Maibach EW. The relationship of sexual abuse and HIV risk

behaviors among heterosexual adult female STD patients. Child Abuse Negl. 1997; 21:149–56 5 Baron L, Straus MA. Rape and its relation to social disorganization, pornography and inequality in the USA. Med Law. 1989; 8:209–32. 6 Armstrong S. Rape in South Africa: An invisible part of apartheid's legacy. Focus Gend. 1994; 2:35–9.

7 Ouattara M, Sen P, Thomson M. Forced marriage, forced sex

The perils of childhood for girls. Gend Dev. 1998; 6:27 8 Daley EM, Noland V. Intimate partner violence in college students: A cross-cultural comparison. Int Electron J Health Educ. 2001; 4:35–40 9 Watts C, Zimmerman C. Violence against women: Global scope and magnitude. Lancet. 2002; 359:1232–7. 10 Greenfield L. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice; 1997. Sex offenses and offenders. family the much-needed respect11, have greater rates of unreported sexual offenses. There have been theories that the frequency of sexual violence may be influenced by the sex ratio. The ratio of men to women in India's population, known as the male-female sex ratio, has been "historically negative”12, with figures ranging from 930 females per 1000 males in

1971 to 940 per 1000 males in 2011, indicating a dire state of affairs. A 2011 sex ratio of 940

indicates that there were roughly 623. 7 million men and 586. 4 million women, or a 37. 3 million disparity between the two genders13. Concurrently, there has been an increase in the number of occurrences of sexual violence; nevertheless, it is challenging to determine a relationship between the two. The National Crime Records Bureau reports that from 2,487 recorded rape cases in 1971 to 24,206 in 201114, there was an 873. 3% rise in rape cases in India. From 2,113 incidents recorded in 2001 to 7,112 cases in 201115, there has been an over 336% increase in child sexual abuse cases in India. According to the theory of evolutionary psychology, competition between males for female mates arises when there is a larger male-female sex ratio (more men than women). Men who participate in sexual violence16 may get enraged and jealous in a sexual way as a result.

According to this theoretical framework, men utilize sexual violence as a means of assuring their female partners17' sexual fidelity. Since this theory alludes to faithfulness, which happens in the framework of a relationship, it may also imply that it is exclusively applicable to intrarelationship sexual violence. Therefore, this theory might not be able to account for the increase in child sexual abuse incidents in situations where faithfulness is unrelated. Naturally, there's a good chance that this increase would occur with more thorough and accurate reporting. According to a paradoxical hypothesis put forth by Guttentag and Secord18, having fewer women than men in a high sex ratio increases the value that men place on women, which in 11 Ward CA, Inserto F. Singapore: Singapore University Press; 1990. Victims of sexual violence: A handbook for helpers Illustrated ed. 12http://www.

frontline. in/navigation/? type=static&page=flonnet&rdurl=fl2810/stories/20110520281010700. htm

13 https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html.

14 http://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/1953-2011.pdf.

15 http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-20/india/38692535_1_integrated-child-protectionscheme-human-rights-national-crimes-record-bureau. 16 D’Alessio SJ, Stolzenberg L. Sex ratio and male-on-female intimate partner violence. J Crim Justice. 2010; 38:555–61. 17 Buss DM. New York: The Free Press; 2000. The dangerous passion: Why jealousy is as necessary as love and sex.

18 Guttentag M, Secord PF. Beverly Hills

Sage; 1983. Too many women? The sex ratio question. turn lowers the likelihood that they will use violence against their intimate partners, including sexual assault. Meanings attributed to Gender The definitions of masculinity and womanhood might differ19 within any given sociocultural context, with masculine identity being linked to experiences and emotions of power20. The idea that men shield women from violence is fostered by paternalistic cultural paradigms, creating the perception that women are mainly incapable of defending themselves. Sexual violence incidents include aspects of dominance, control, control, and humiliation in addition to violence. Sexual abusers utilize tactics like kidnapping, seclusion, compulsion, manipulation, threats, and sexual abuse to establish control and influence over their victims.

Although offenders21 may not find the act sexually satisfying, the meaning men attach to authority may motivate them to do such actions over sexual desires. Sexual violence against children is a prime example of this, as it is essentially a display of power over a child's existence22. It is improbable that a youngster will resist the offender's attempts, particularly as they may not always possess the mental development necessary to recognize the wrongness of the conduct. Gender equality has also been suggested to lead to a rise in male backlash23 and sexual violence, since men are more frequently recognized in various societies24 as sexually violent individuals. It is probable that the recent rise in sexual violence charges in India is a result of male backlash against the growing gender equality in a society that is currently seeing a shift from male dominance to gender equality.

It's also very likely that heightened media attention will draw some people to commit these crimes in order to become somewhat famous. Attitudes Gender attitudes are likely to influence how male-female relationships are perceived across

19 Cornwall A, Lindisfarne N. London

Routledge; 1994. Dislocating masculinities.

20 Moore H. London

Polity Press; 1994. A passion for difference: Essays in anthropology and gender.

21 Anderson JE, Abraham M, Bruessow M, Coleman RD, McCarthy KC, Harris-Odimgbe T, et al. Cross-cultural perspectives on intimate partner violence. JAAPA. 2008; 21:36–44. 22 Rajani RR. Child sexual abuse in Tanzania: Much noise, little justice. Sex Health Exch. 1998; 1:13–4. 23 Martin K, Vieraitis LM, Britto S. Gender equality and women's absolute status: A test of the feminist models of rape. Violence Against Women. 2006; 12:321–39. 24 Koss MP, Gidycz CA, Wisniewski N. The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987; 55:162–72. cultural boundaries, which in turn influences how victims and sexual offenders are perceived. Sanday25 examined 156 societal systems for her groundbreaking research on the cross-cultural elements of heterosexual rape.

She discovered that rape is an integral component of a sociocultural configuration that was centered on IPV, male dominance, and an "ideology of toughness" in males and vulnerability in women. Continuing Sanday's research, Briere and Malamuth26 investigated the possibility of a relationship between self-reported likelihood of raping or using sexual coercion and sexuality variables (sexual experience, importance of sex, relationships with women, use of pornography) and attitudes that encouraged violence toward women. They evaluated 352 male University of Manitoba introductory psychology students and discovered that, although not exclusively based on sexuality variables, rape-supportive attitudes and a combination of attitude and sexuality variables could predict the likelihood of rape or the use of force.

Therefore, it appears that personality qualities play a bigger part in the "construction" of rape. Sexual violence may be more common in countries with more liberal views on sexuality, although the same attitudes may also be present in less liberal societies. Jaffee and Straus27 proposed a strong correlation between urbanization, poverty, the high proportion of divorced men, and the incidence of reported sexual violence, but they did not find any link between sexually liberal views and sexual violence. Stereotypes Rape, according to Burt28, is the psychological result of a society that has a stereotyped dominant-submissive sex role. Sexual violence29 can be predicted by socioculturally transmitted attitudes toward women, rape, and rapists. Stereotypes of this kind are frequently internalized from the male-dominated society.

A culture's pervasive misogynist mentality may give rise to sexual violence. It's been said that in India, cows receive better treatment than women.

25 Sanday PR. The socio-cultural context of rape

A cross-cultural study. J Soc Sci. 1981; 37:5–27.

26 Briere J, Malamuth NM. Self-reported likelihood of sexually aggressive behavior

Attitudinal versus sexual explanations. J Res Pers. 1983; 17:315–23. 27 Jaffee D, Straus MA. Sexual climate and reported rape: A state-level analysis. Arch Sex Behav. 1987; 16:107– 23.

28 Burt MR. Cultural myths and supports for rape. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1980; 38:217–30.

29 Rodabaugh B, Austin M. New York

Garland Press; 1981. Sexual assault.

For instance, girls in rural India30 lack autonomy over their sexuality. The expectation is that they will marry and have kids, which will transfer the power over their sexuality from one man (the father) to another (the husband). As in many other societies that may still hold onto traditional patriarchal beliefs, a man is therefore the most significant figure in a woman's life in India. More perceived or actual authority may inspire people to consider their "rights" in societies where men and their manly roles are valued more highly. Men may view a woman's refusal to engage in sexual activity as a direct challenge to their masculinity. This could lead to a crisis of masculine identity and encourage the use of sexual control and violence as a means of resolving the issue.

According to reports, victims who try to resist or flee the situation are more likely to be brutalized by the abuser31, which gives the abuser an exaggerated sense of power, as was the case in the December 2012 gang rape case of Nirbhaya in New Delhi. There is a widely held, cliched, but false stereotype that says a guy is more likely to conduct sexual assault against a woman if he witnesses her being attractive, alluring, and wearing skimpy clothing when she is out alone at night. This misconception unfairly places the whole burden of the act on the victim, making her a victim of subsequent abuse. It is therefore only a fallacy that only young, attractive, and attractively dressed women are raped, given the facts that even a female child is frequently a victim of sexual assault and that acquaintance rape is more common than stranger rape.

Compared to appearance or clothes, the victim's perceived or actual vulnerability is a significantly more significant component. Consequences of Sexual Violence In addition to assaulting the immediate victims, sexual violence can have far-reaching effects on the definition of freedom and fundamental human rights32. Cultural differences exist in how sexual violence is viewed as a result. Sexual assault victims might not disclose their pain in sociocentric communities because shame is a common emotion, which could prevent them from reporting it. This has a detrimental effect on the victim as well as the true nature of trauma and the frequency of these acts, which influences policy-making. Sociocentric cultures place a

30 Kumari R. Rural female adolescence

Indian scenario. Soc Change. 1995; 25:177–88.

31 Levine S, Koenig J. London

WH Allen; 1983. Why men rape: Interviews with convicted rapists.

32 Herbert TW. Cambridge

Harvard University Press; 2002. Sexual violence and American manhood. Illustrated ed. strong emphasis on interpersonal relationships, with kinship and family serving as the foundation of human identity. In contrast, relationships with the "self" are central to ego-centric cultures, where "independence" is valued over "interdependence. " It is said that emotional expressions and experiences of shame and guilt33 differ between sociocentric and egocentric civilizations. The fundamental belief of various societies is the reason for these disparate emotional experiences: A more socialized sense of guilt that cannot exist in the absence of social relationships tends to arise in sociocentric cultures. Egocentric societies, on the other hand, tend to be more individualistic and produce a shame that is felt more privately.

Consequently, a victim of sexual violence's feelings is influenced by their society. Family members have a greater understanding of the harm caused by sexual abuse in sociocentric societies where the family's (izzat) dignity comes before that of the individual member. Conversely, the harm caused by sexual assault is centered more on the identity and dignity of the individual member in ego-centric cultures. Concepts of self therefore differ. Hofstede34 has also distinguished between the cultural dimensions of masculinity and femininity in societies with distinct gender roles. When sexual assault victims35 disclose their trauma, they run the risk of experiencing unfavourable reactions, the most distressing of which is being held responsible for the crime.

Research has demonstrated a correlation between elevated levels of gender-based discrimination and stereotyping and elevated levels of victimization36. In Asian societies, where anything that has sexual overtones is heavily stigmatized, the social shame arising from sexual abuse is worse.

CONCLUSION

Even if there hasn't been much attention paid to the problem of sexual violence up until now, 33 Zimmerling R. International University Bremen: AK Interkultureller Demokratievergleich; 2003. Jun, ‘Guilt Cultures’ vs ‘Shame Cultures’: Political Implications? Paper given at the International Conference on Reassessing Democracy: New Approaches to Governance, Citizenship and Multiple Identities in Comparative Research; pp. 20–21.

34 Hofstede G. Thousand Oaks, CA

Sage; 2001. Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. 35 Campbell R, Ahrens CE, Sefl T, Wasco SM, Barnes HE. Social reactions to rape victims: Healing and hurtful effects on psychological and physical health outcomes. Violence Vict. 2001; 16:287–302.

36 Lonsway KA, Fitzgerald LF. Rape myths

In review. Psychol Women Q. 1994; 18:133–64. this can no longer continue. Thus, it becomes imperative to recognize that sexual violence cuts beyond national and cultural divides. If there is no acknowledgement of this kind, sexual violence can keep becoming worse. Culture is just one of the numerous variables that may be significant in our knowledge of sexual violence. The causes of sexual violence are multifaceted, and like many other crimes, they may not be fully understood and explained by a single component. What factors contribute to cultural differences in the prevalence of sexual violence is a crucial research question. The topic of cross-cultural aspects of sexual violence has received very little attention and study.

Rephrasing and reinterpreting37 different patriarchal and matriarchal models, as well as different gender roles and expectations, would be a significant first step in understanding sexual violence and its victims. It is imperative that we begin to comprehend the obstacles and advantages that distinct cultures possess in relation to the prevalence of sexual violence.

37 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3777345/#ref4.

https://bmcwomenshealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12905-023-02338-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5576571/.