Kartar Singh v. State of Punjab

Citation: (1994) 3 SCC 569

Court: Supreme Court of India

Bench: KARTAR SINGH

Case summary

Before going to the question of the validity of these

Judgment text

PETITIONER: KARTAR SINGH Vs. RESPONDENT: STATE OF PUNJAB DATE OF JUDGMENT11/03/1994 BENCH: SAHAI, R. M. (J) BENCH: SAHAI, R. M. (J) PANDIAN, S. R. (J) PANDIAN, S. R. (J) PUNCHHI, M. M. RAMASWAMY, K. AGRAWAL, S. C. (J) CITATION: 1994 SCC (3) 569 JT 1994 (2) 423 1994 SCALE 1 ACT: HEADNOTE: JUDGMENT: The Judgments of the Court were delivered by S. RATNAVEL PANDIAN, J. (on behalf of himself, Punchhi, J. , K. Ramaswamy, J. , Agrawal, J. and Sahai, J. ). The above batch of matters consisting of a number of writ petitions, criminal appeals and SLPs are filed challenging the vires of the Terrorist Affected Areas (Special Courts) Act (No. 61 of 1984), the Terrorists and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (No. 31 of 1985) and the Terrorists and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1987 (No.

28 of 1987) commonly known as TADA Acts (hereinafter referred to as the Act of 1984, Act of 1985 and Act of 1987 respectively) and challenging the constitutional validity of Section 9 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (U. P. Amendment) Act, 1976 (U. P. Act No. 16 of 1976) by which the Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh has deleted Section 438 of the Code of Criminal Procedure as applicable to the State of Uttar Pradesh. Though originally, a number of other matters falling under various Acts such as the U. P. Gangsters and Anti-social Activities (Prevention) Act, 1986 (U. P. Act 7 of 1986), the Prevention of Illicit Traffic Ed. : For clarification see Editor's Introductory Note at the beginning of the head note.

615 of Narcotics 'Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1988 and some provisions of the Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974 (COFEPOSA), were listed for hearing, we have fully and conclusively heard only the matters pertaining to the Act of 1984, Act of 1985 and Act of 1987 and U. P. Act 16 of 1976. 2. Therefore, we are now rendering a common judgment pertaining to the vires of these three Acts and Section 9 of U. P. Act 16 of 1976. At the same time, we make it clear that the merits of the individual cases will have to be decided separately after the validity of these three Acts is decided. 3. Before going to the question of the validity of these three Acts, we feel that a factual and archival account and exposition of the three relevant Acts may be summarised. Prefatory Note of the Three Acts (A) THE TERRORIST AFFECTED AREAS (SPECIAL COURTS) ACT, 1984 (ACT 61 OF 1984) 4.

The above Act 61 of 1984, applicable to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir received the assent of the President on August 31, 1984 replacing Ordinance No. 9 of 1984 promulgated on July 14, 1984, the object of which is to provide for the speedy trial of certain offenses in terrorist affected areas and for matters connected therewith.

Section 2(1) of this Act defines the expression "terrorist affected area" as an area declared as a "terrorist affected area" under Section 3 which provision empowers the Central Government by notification to declare any area to be "terrorist affected area" and constitute such area into a single judicial zone or into as many judicial zones as it may deem fit provided in its opinion the offenses of the nature specified in the Schedule appended to that Act are being committed in any area by terrorists on such a scale and in such a manner that it is expedient for the purpose of coping with such terrorists to have recourse to the provisions of the Act. The notification issued under Section 3(1) in respect of an area should specify the period during which the area shall for the purpose of this Act be a "terrorist affected area".

As per Section 3(2) a notification under Section 3(1) in respect of an area specifying the period during which the area shall for the purpose of this Act, be a terrorist affected area, and where the Central Government is of the opinion that the terrorists had been committing in that area from the date earlier than the date of issue of the notification, offenses of the nature specified in the Schedule on such a scale and in such a manner that it is expedient to commence the period specified in the notification from such earlier date, the period specified in the notification may commence from that date subject to the proviso thereto. 5. This Act contains 21 sections relating to the establishment of special courts, their composition, jurisdiction and appointment of judges and provision for an appeal as a matter of right from any judgment, sentence or order (not being an interlocutory order) of a special court to the Supreme Court both on facts and law. 616 6.

Though in the original Schedule to this Act qua the definition of the expression 'Scheduled Offence' [vide Section 2(1)(f)], various enactments including 58 sections under the Indian Penal Code of which 23 are bailable were specified, the Legislature by the Amendment Act 45 of 1985, published in the Gazette of India, dated August 26, 1985, retained only Sections 121, 121-A, 122 and 123 of the Indian Penal Code and Sections 4 and 5 of the Anti-Hijacking Act, 1982 and deleted the rest from the original schedule. 7. It has been brought to our notice by Mr K. T. S. Tulsi, the learned Additional Solicitor General that the Central Government established judicial zones in Jullundur, Patiala, Ferozepur and Chandigarh but abolished them by Notification Nos. S. O. 692, S. O. 693, S. O. 694 and S. O. 695 dated September 25, 1985 and transferred the cases pending before those courts to ordinary courts.

Two additional courts were constituted by the Government of India for trial of hijacking cases and Golden Temple case at Ajmer and Jodhpur but these two courts were also abolished by the Government vide Notification Nos. S. O. 655(E) and S. O. 722(E) dated August 24, 1990 and September 28, 1993 respectively. However, this Act is not repealed, but is in operation. (B) THE TERRORIST AND DISRUPTIVE ACTIVITIES (PREVENTION) ACT, 1985 (ACT 31 OF 1985) 8. This Act which received the assent of the President on May 23, 1985 and was published in the Gazette of India, Extra. , Part II, Section 1, dated May 23, 1985, came into force on May 24, 1985 in whole of India for a period of two years. Though originally the proviso to sub-section (2) to Section 1 was added reading, "Provided so much of this Act as relates to terrorist acts shall not apply to the State of Jammu and Kashmir", this proviso was omitted by Act 46 of 1985.

The provisions of this Act were made applicable to the State of Jammu and Kashmir w. e. f. June 5, 1985. The preamble of this Act read that the special provisions of this Act were made "for the prevention of, and for coping with, terrorist and disruptive activities and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto". The Statement of Objects and Reasons of this Act read as follows: "Prefatory Note Statement of Objects and Reasons. - Terrorists had been indulging in wanton killings, arson, looting of properties' and other heinous crimes mostly in Punjab and Chandigarh. Since the 10th May, 1985, the terrorists have expanded their activities to other parts of the country, i. e. Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan as a result of which several innocent lives have been lost and many suffered serious injuries.

In planting of explosive devices in trains, buses and public places, the object to terrorise, to create fear and panic in the minds of citizens and to disrupt communal peace and harmony is clearly discernible. This is a new and overt phase of terrorism which requires to be taken serious note of and dealt with effectively and expeditiously. The 617 alarming increase in disruptive activities is also a matter of serious concern. " 9. The Bill as introduced sought to make provisions for combating the menace of terrorists and disruptionists, inter alia, to- (a) provide for deterrent punishment for terrorist acts and disruptive activities; (b) confer on the Central Government adequate powers to make such rules as may be necessary or expedient for the prevention of, and for coping with, terrorist acts and disruptive activities; and (c) provide for the constitution of Designated Courts for the speedy and expeditious trial of offenses under the proposed legislation. 10.

In Section 2, clauses (c) and (f) the expressions 'disruptive activity' and 'terrorist act' are defined. This Act in all contains 24 sections which are segregated into four parts i. e.

Part 1 (Sections 1 to 2), Part 11 (Sections 3 to 6), Part III (Sections 7 to 16) and Part IV (Sections 17 to 24), dealing with punishment for, and measures for coping with, terrorist and disruptive activities, constitution of Designated Courts constituted under Section 7 of the Act, its jurisdiction and powers, the procedure to be followed, production of witnesses, appointment of Public Prosecutors and the provision for appeal as a matter of right from any judgment, sentence or order, not being an interlocutory order, of the court direct to the Supreme Court both on facts and law (vide Sections 7 to 16) and other miscellaneous provisions regarding the modified application of certain provisions of the Code' of Criminal Procedure, 1973, competence of Central Government to exercise powers of State Government and delegation of powers, power of the Supreme Court of India to make rules etc. (C) THE TERRORIST AND DISRUPTIVE ACTIVITIES (PREVENTION) ACT, 1987 (ACT 28 OF 1987) 11.

Act 28 of 1987 was enacted as Act 31 of 1985 was due to expire on May 23, 1987 and as it was felt that in order to combat and cope with terrorist and disruptive activities effectively, it was not only necessary to continue the said law but also to strengthen it further. Since both the Houses of Parliament were not in session and it was necessary to take immediate action, the President promulgated the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Ordinance, 1987 (2 of 1987) on May 23, 1987 which came into force w. e. f. May 24, 1987. However, this Act repealing the Ordinance, received the assent of the President of India on September 3, 1987 and was published in the Gazette of India, Extra. , Part II, Section 1, dated September 3, 1987. The scheme of Act 31 of 1985 and Act 28 of 1987 as reflected from their preambles is the same.

The scheme of the special provisions of these two Acts were/are "for the prevention of, and for coping with, terrorist and disruptive activities and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto". 618 12. As per sub-section (1) of Section 1, Sections 5, 15, 21 and 22 came into force at once and the remaining provisions of this Act were deemed to have come into force on 24th day of May 1987. According to sub-section (4) of Section 1, this Act was to remain in force for a period of two years from May 24, 1987 but subsequently sub-section (4) was amended by virtue of the Amendment Act 16 of 1989 whereby for the words "two years", the words "four years" were substituted and the validity of this Act was extended for a further period of two years. Resultantly, the Act was to expire on May 23, 1991.

Thereafter as it was felt that the Act should continue, the President promulgated an Ordinance whereby for the words "four years", "six years" were substituted in sub-section (4) of Section 1. Subsequently, this Ordinance was repealed by Act 35 of 1991 thus extending the life of the Act 28 of 1987 to six years. As the Act even by the extended period of six years was to expire on May 23, 1993, another Amendment Act 43 of 1993 which received the assent of President on May 22, 1993, was enacted extending the life of the Act for eight years instead of six years. 13. Incidentally, it may be stated that some insertions, substitutions and omissions to some of the sections of this Act have been made. This Act contains 30 sections grouped under four parts i. e. Part 1 (Sections 1 and 2), Part 11 (Sections 3 to 8), Part III (Sections 9 to 19) and Part IV (Sections 20 to 30). Part 11 of the Act deals with punishment for, and measures for coping with terrorists and disruptive activities.

Part III deals with constitution of Designated Courts, their jurisdiction, powers, and the procedure to be adopted. It also provides provisions for appeal to the Supreme Court both on facts and law as in the case of other Acts. The provisions under Part IV under the heading "Miscellaneous" deal with the modified application of certain provisions of the Code, presumption as to offenses under Section 3, identification of accused, power of the Supreme Court to make rules etc. 14. We give the following table of some of the provisions which are similar in the Act of 1985 and the Act of 1987: The Terrorist and Disruptive The Terrorist and Disruptive Activities Prevention Activities (Prevention) Act, 1985 Act,1987 Section 7 = Section 9 Section 8 = Section 10 Section 9(2) = Section 11(2) Section 13 = Section 16 Section 16 = Section 19 Section 17(2) = Section 20(4) Section 17(4) = Section 20(7) Section 17(5) = Section 20(8) 15. A galaxy of senior lawyers, namely, M/s V. M.

Tarzan, Ram Jethmalani, M. S. Gujral, Rajinder Sachar, Hardev Singh, M. R. Sharma, A. K. Sen, Balwant Singh assisted by a team of lawyers, M/s R. S. Sodhi, S. Bisaria, D. B. Vohra, K. Rajendra Chowdhary, A. K. Srivastava, Shiv Pujan 619 Singh, Ujjal Singh, Mohan Pandey all appearing for the petitioners/appellants made the most virulent fusillade against the constitutional validity of all the Acts in general and the various provisions of those Acts in particular mainly on the grounds that (1) that the Central Legislature has no legislative competence to enact the legislations, and (2) these impugned Acts or some of the provisions of these Acts are in contravention of or ostensibly in violation of any of the fundamental rights specified in Part III of the Constitution; they also triggered off a volley of attacks against the validity of the provisions of these Acts/on some other grounds also.

According to them, these Acts and the provisions thereto, which are in utter disregard and breach of humanitarian law and universal human rights, not only lack impartiality but also fail the basic test of justice and fairness which are well established and recognised principles of law. 16. After critically analysing a number of penal and procedural provisions relating to issue of arrest, investigation, bail, mode and methodology of trial, right of the accused during the trial etc. etc. , the learned counsel have strenuously articulated that these Acts with which we are confronted, are Draconian, ugly, vicious and highly reprehensible, the brutality of which cannot and should not be minimised or ignored though this Court is not called upon to condone the penalised conduct of the real terrorists and disruptionists.

Then they made a scathing attack seriously contending that the police by abusing and misusing their arbitrary and uncanalised power under the impugned Acts are doing a 'witch-hunt' against the innocent people and suspects stigmatizing them as potential criminals and hunt them all the time and overreact and thereby unleash a reign of terror as an institutionalised terror perpetrated by Nazis on Jews. 17. The above challenges have been countervailed by the learned Additional Solicitor General, Mr K. T. S. Tulsi assisted by Mr R. S. Suri appearing for the State of Punjab, the learned Additional Solicitor General, Mr Altaf Ahmed assisted by Ms A. Subhashini appearing for the Union of India, Mr V. R. Reddy, the learned Additional Solicitor General assisted by Mr K. V. Venkataraman and Mr 1. Subramaniam for the State of Tamil Nadu, Mr S. K. Dholakia for the State of Gujarat and Mr N. M. Ghatate for the State of U. P.

contending that all the veiled attacks challenging the validity of the Acts and the provisions thereto are mainly due to the unjustifiable hostility and sentiments and souring of respect for those Acts. According to them, the events of the past and the continuous long term threats of terrorism and disruption unleashed by a team of seasoned criminals by spreading their wings and sharpening their claws have forced the legislature to respond to this menace without sacrificing the national values and to combat the terrorism by extending and expanding the legal powers of the State and taking steps/measures in a legalised way and that the outcome of such response is the enactment of these Acts after a prolonged debate in both Houses of Parliament as the Legislature has felt that the ordinary criminal laws both penal and procedural are quite inadequate to meet the 620 challenges especially when the incidents of terrorists' and disruptionists' activities have increased astronomically.

It has been submitted that it was only in the above background, the Parliament in its wisdom thought that the enactment of these Acts (TADA) is the only solution for all the ills, besetting the nation and accordingly enacted these Acts under challenge in order to put down the terrorism and the impending danger in a legalised manner and a comprehensive survey of the anatomy of the entire Acts and a dispassionate examination of them would unmistakably show that these Acts cannot be said to be, in any way, contravening any of the fundamental rights of our Constitution or suffering from lack of legislative competence. 18. Supplementing the above submission, it has been very seriously contended by Mr K. T. S.

Tulsi that the terrorists are resorting to a mix of specific terrorist operations including armed attacks in a very cruel, unusual and inhumane manner for a variety of reasons, some of which being (1) to instill (a) a sense of fear and helplessness among civilians either to alienate them from the Government duly established or to make them lose faith in the Government's ability to protect them, (b) a sense of impotence among government officials or to intimidate them as a means of neutralizing their active opposition to the terrorists groups; (2) to undermine the national economy by discouraging foreign investment, dissuading foreign tourists from visiting the country and spurring capital flight by domestic investors; and (3) to provoke harsh governmental reprisals to gain sympathy of the population or to create an international incident to publicise their political cause and so on.

He further states that all their violent activities are designed to get maximum media coverage of their demands including political demands and of publicity and that many times the targets or the victims of the most inhumane physical attacks are the innocent persons whether they are individuals or group of persons. 19. Notwithstanding the merits and demerits of the submissions and counter-submissions, irrefutably the talented lawyers and learned Additional Solicitors General using their formidable legal skill, extensive scholarly knowledge and vast and rich practical experience in criminal proceedings and trials analysed the various provisions of the Acts under separate heads in the light of the wellrecognised principles of criminal jurisprudence with reference to human rights, but sometimes with occasional outbursts and caustic exchanges.

In support of their respective contentions advanced during their expanded arguments, they cited a long line of decisions of not only this Court and the High Courts of this country but also foreign decisions and legislations. 20. Before we make an in-depth examination of the challenges canvassed which are manifestly and pristinely legal, with regard to the impugned Acts and some of their provisions with a comprehensive and exclusive survey, it has become inevitable for us to give a brief sketch of the historical background and the circumstances which forced the legislature to enact these 621 laws, as gathered from the parliamentary debates, Statement of Objects and Reasons and prefatory notes of the impugned Acts, etc. , etc. 21. From the recent past, in many parts of the world, terrorism and disruption are spearheading for one reason or another and resultantly great leaders have been assassinated by suicide bombers and many dastardly murders have been committed.

Deplorably, determined youths lured by hardcore criminals and underground extremists and attracted by the ideology of terrorism are indulging in committing serious crimes against the humanity. In spite of the drastic actions taken and intense vigilance activated, the terrorists and militants do not desist from triggering lawlessness if it suits their purpose. In short, they are waging a domestic war against the sovereignty of their respective nations or against a race or community in order to create an embryonic imbalance and nervous disorder in the society either on being stimulated or instigated by the national, transnational or international hard-core criminals or secessionists etc. Resultantly, the security and integrity of the countries concerned are at peril and the law and order in many countries is disrupted. To say differently, the logic of the cult of the bullet is hovering the globe completely robbing off the reasons and rhymes.

Therefore, every country has now felt the need to strengthen vigilance against the spurt in the illegal and criminal activities of the militants and terrorists so that the danger to its sovereignty is averted and the community is protected. 22. Thus, terrorism and disruptive activities are a worldwide phenomenon and India is not an exception. Unfortunately in the recent past this country has fallen in the firm grip of spiraling terrorists' violence and is caught between the deadly pangs of disruptive activities. As seen from the Objects and Reasons of the Act 31 of 1985, "Terrorists had been indulging in wanton killings, arson, looting of properties and other heinous crimes mostly in Punjab and Chandigarh" and then slowly they expanded their activities to other parts of the country i. e. Delhi, Haryana, U. P. and Rajasthan.

At present they have outstretched their activities by spreading their wings far and wide almost bringing the major part of the country under the extreme violence and terrorism by letting loose unprecedented and unprovoked repression and disruption unmindful of the security of the nation, personal liberty and right, inclusive of the right to live with human dignity of the innocent citizens of this country and destroying the image of many glitzy cities like Chandigarh, Srinagar, Delhi and Bombay by strangulating the normal life of the citizens. Apart from many skirmishes in various parts of the country, there were countless serious and horrendous events engulfing many cities with blood-bath, firing, looting, mad killing even without sparing women and children and reducing those areas into a graveyard, which brutal atrocities have rocked and shocked the whole nation. 23.

Everyday, there are jarring pieces of information through electronic and print media that many innocent, defenseless people particularly poor, politicians, statesmen, government officials, police officials, army personnel inclusive of the jawans belonging to Border Security Force have been 622 mercilessly gunned down. No one can deny these stark facts and naked truth by adopting an ostrich like attitude completely ignoring the impending danger. Whatever may be the reasons, indeed there is none to deny that. 24. The speeches made by the then Home Minister, the then Minister of State for Home Affairs and many Members of Parliament during the debates at the time of the introduction of the Act of 1987 and at the subsequent stage of its extension and modification, would unfold the magnitude and seriousness of the terrorist and disruptive activities and their consequent dangerous impact on the security of the nation. 25.

On April 8, 1988, the then Home Minister in his speech before the Lok Sabha stated thus: "As I told in the beginning, the forces working to destabilize the country are bein g encouraged from outside as well as inside of the country ... According to the information received, it appears that its master mind is somewhere else and it is also inside. " 26. The then Minister of State for Home Affairs gave an extensive speech with regard to the commission of heinous crimes on a large scale not only threatening the security and territorial integrity of the nation but also extremely affecting the normal life of the people and stressed the importance of the enactment of law providing the special procedure and speedy trial of those offenses. 27. One of the Members of Parliament (Shri Kamal Chaudhary) expressing his view during the discussion on the Bill on the Terrorists and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1987 stated: ... Punjab is burning.

The legend goes that in the rivers of Punjab milk used to flow but they are now drenched with blood. There is hatred all over. What is a democratic solution for Punjab. ... How many women are beating their breasts every night? We feel the pinch only when our near and dear ones get killed. " Yet another Member of Parliament (Shri Anoopchand Shah) speaking on the Bill presented before the House said: "Today terrorism has not remained confined to Punjab only. It has rather spread to every corner of the country. The same terrorism which exists in Punjab is making its presence felt in Delhi and Maharashtra also...... Another Member of Parliament (Shri Jagan Nath Kaushal) taking part in the debate on the Act of 1987 spoke thus: . "... The Hon. Members know that we are not dealing with normal peaceful times. We are dealing with extraordinary times. Shri Satyendra Narayan Singh has said that not only for Punjab but do something for Bihar also because in the garb of political party etc.

greater terrorism is prevailing there also. " 28. We feel that it is not necessary to swell this judgment by reproducing the entire speeches made by the then Home Minister, the Minister of State 623 for Home Affairs and some Members of Parliament on the atrocities committed by terrorists and disruptionists and on the necessity of bringing the Acts (TADA) to effectively prevent the consequent violence.

But suffice to give the compelling reasons as shown in the Statements of Objects and Reasons for enacting the Acts of 1985 and Objects and Reasons for enacting the Acts of 1985 and 1987 which are to the effect that the terrorists and disruptionists by their expanded activities have created dreadful fear and panic in the minds of the citizens and disrupted communal peace and harmony; that their activities are on an escalation in many parts of the country; that it has been felt that in order to combat and cope with such activities effectively, it had become necessary to take appropriate legal steps effectively and expeditiously so that the alarming increase of these activities which are a matter of serious concern, could be prevented and severely dealt with. 29.

The totality of the speeches made by the Ministers, Members of the Parliament during the debates in the Parliament, the Statement of Objects and Reasons, the submissions made by the learned Additional Solicitors General converge to the following conclusions: (1) From mid-eighties, the prevailing conditions have been surcharged with the terrorism and disruption posing a serious threat to the sovereignty and integrity of India as well as creating panic and sense of insecurity in the minds of the people.

Added to that the brutality of terrorism let loose, by the secessionists and anti-nationals in the highly vulnerable area of Indian territory, (prejudicial to the defence of India), is causing grave concern even about the chances of survival of the democratic polity and process; (2) there were also continuous commission of heinous offenses such as gruesome mass killings of defenseless innocent people including women, children and bystanders, disturbing the peace, tranquility and security; (3) the existing ordinary criminal laws are found to be inadequate to sternly deal with such activities perpetrated on humanity. 30.

It was only in the above prevailing circumstances, the Legislature has been compelled to bring forth these Acts (TADA) to prevent and deal with the peril of the erupting terrorism and the consequent potential disorder among others disrupting the law and order and to sternly deal with many groups lurking beneath the murky surface, aiding, abetting, nourishing and fomenting terrorism besides giving financial support and supplying sophisticated automatic lethal arms and ammunitions both from inside and outside of India.

It may not be out of place to mention that the facts of the cases appealed against and set out in the writ petitions and SLP, if accepted in their entirety, reveal the multiple acts of violence let loose; and the acts of savage revenge perpetrated against individuals, group of persons or any particular community or religious sects show that the violent threat which 624 has manifested itself is not evidently going to vanish with such inexplicable suddenness as would seem to have been visually presumed. 31. In this context, a question may arise as to whether judges can take notice of matters of common knowledge and authenticated report. This question has been examined by a Full Bench of the High Court of Punjab and Haryana in Sukhdev Singh v. Union Territory, Chandigarh'. M. M. Punchhi, J.

(as he then was) speaking for the majority observed: "I know that in order to sustain the presumption of constitutionality of a legislative measure, the court can take into consideration matters of common knowledge, matters of common report, the history of the times and also assume every state of facts which can be conceived existing at the time of the legislation. " 32. To redress all the multiple dimensions of crimes whether of national or transnational or international committed by individual or group of criminals, is of course a very difficult task because the crimes and criminals do not respect frontiers and the field of operation of the activities of the criminals know no territorial limits. 33.

The Parliament, evidently, taking note of the gravity of terrorism committed by terrorists either with an intention to overawe the Government as by law established or to strike terror in the people or any section of the people or to alienate any section of the people or to adversely affect the harmony amongst different sections of the people and the consequent widespread apparent danger to the nation, has felt the need of not only continuing but also further strengthening the provisions of TADA Act (Act 31 of 1985) in order to cope with the menace of terrorism, enacted Act 28 of 1987 bringing drastic changes with regard to the admissibility of confessions made to police officials prescribing special procedures and providing consign punishments etc. , leave apart the question with regard to the validity of these provisions to be tested on the touchstone of the Constitution. 34.

Keeping in view the above historical background, we shall unbiasedly and without any preconceived notion, examine the various legal problems presented inclusive of the constitutional validity of the three Acts (TADA) in general and of the various provisions in particular of those Acts on the touchstone of the Constitution of India. 35. While so testing the vires of these Acts, we shall also scrupulously analyse the various penal and the procedural provisions embodied in those Acts relating to the issues of definition of certain terms, arrest, investigation, bail, mode of trial, jurisdiction of the Designated Courts, the permissible legal rights of the accused guaranteed under the Constitution, etc. , etc. in the light of the constitutional provisions as well as the legal provisions of the existing procedural law with the spectrum of experience so far we have gained in the field of implementation of these impugned Acts.

When Law ends, Tyranny begins; 1 AIR 1987 P & H 5: 1986 Cri LJ 1757: (1986) 90 Punj LR 109 625 Legislation begins where Evil begins. The function of the Judiciary begins when the function of the Legislature ends, because the law is, what the judges say it is since the power to interpret the law vests in the judges. 36. Law is made not to be broken but to be obeyed and the respect for law is not retained by demonstration of strength but by better appreciation of the reasons, better understanding of its reality and implicit obedience. It goes without saying that the achievements of law in the past are considerable, its protection in the present is imperative and its potential for the future is immense. It is very unfortunate that on account of lack of respect, lack of understanding, lack of effectiveness, lack of vision and lack of proper application in the present day affairs, law sometimes falls in crisis. 37.

Where all traditional law enforcement institutions are under suspicious scrutiny, only rational application of the functions of law and a thorough understanding of its complexities and limitations can protect the integrity and survival of legal order. 38. But it is certainly true that the problem has received a new intensity and a new range as the law extends and variegates the range of its concerns and application and as the interests and modes of articulation of those ministering to the law become more and more specialised and technical. 39. Needless to stress that the life of man in a society would be a continuing disaster if not regulated. The principal means for such regulation is the law which serves as the measure of a society's balance of order and compassion and instrument of social welfare rooted in human rights, liberty and dignity. 40.

Emphasising the importance and potentiality of the law, Lord Chancellor Sankey once remarked: "Amidst the cross currents and shifting sands of public life the law is like a great ark upon which a man may set his foot and be safe. " 41. C. G. Weeramantry in The Law in Crisis Bridges of Understanding emphasising the importance of 'Rule of Law' in achieving social interest has stated thus: "The protections the citizens enjoy under the Rule of Law are the quintessence of twenty centuries of human struggle. It is not commonly realised how easily these may be lost. There is no known method of retaining them but eternal vigilance. There is no known authority to which this duty can be delegated but the community itself. There is no known means of stimulating this vigilance but education of the community towards an enlightened interest in its legal system, its achievements and its problems. " 42.

Harking back to the Acts with which we are concerned, Act 31 of 1985 and Act 28 of 1987 have been enacted by Parliament as a piece of emergency legislation for a certain length of time which period has been extended periodically by the Parliament on revision and they have been extended to the whole of India and made applicable to citizens of India even outside India, to persons in the service of the Government, wherever they may be; and to persons on ships and aircraft registered in India, wherever they may be. 43. With the above brief introduction, we shall now proceed to deal with the submissions made by the learned counsel for the parties with reference to the main questions, firstly whether the Acts suffer from lack of legislative competence and secondly, whether the Acts or any of the provisions thereof contravene any fundamental right specified in Part III of the Constitution, as well as other cognate questions. 44.

It has been seriously contended by Mr Balwant Singh Malik, Senior Counsel that Act 28 of 1987 (TADA) is ultra vires since the Central Legislature, namely, the Parliament, lacked legislative competence under Article 246 read with the topics of legislation enumerated in List I (Union List) and List III (Concurrent List) of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution, to enact the TADA Act and that the subject-matter of the impugned Acts in fact fell within the legislative field assigned to the States under Entry of List II (State List), namely, 'Public Order' which is a most comprehensive term with widest import encompassing every activity which leads to violence or disturbs public tranquility. 45.

According to him, the subject-matter of the Act (TADA) is not referable to any of the matters enumerated in List I of the Seventh Schedule and the presumptive attempt of the Union of India to rely upon Entry 1 of List III for the competency of the Parliament to enact the TADA Act cannot find favour. Entry I of List III reads: "Criminal law, including all matters included in the Indian Penal Code at the commencement of this Constitution but excluding offenses against laws with respect to any of the matters specified in List I or List II and excluding the use of naval, military or air forces or any other armed forces of the Union in aid of the civil power. " 46. According to him, the above entry is left with only 'offenses against laws' with respect to matters specified in subsequent entries of the Concurrent List.

As the TADA Act cannot be held to be referable to any other topic in the Concurrent List, its subject-matter could not, on that basis be held to fall under Entry of that list. It has been further submitted that the contents of the heading 'Criminal law' in Entry 1 of List III are derivative in' nature and carry no meaning of their own because the criminal law comprising 'offenses against laws' are with respect to the matters in the three lists. He continued to urge that the subject-matter of the TADA Act which deals with the 'security of the State' and 'public safety' involving violence even of the highest degree tending to cause grave public disorder is plainly covered under Entry of List II and that the individual States under Entry 64 of List II alone are competent to legislate with respect to offenses against public order. 47.

After drawing our attention to some of the laws enacted by various States with respect to maintenance of public order, such as- (1) Assam Disturbed Areas Act (19 of 1955); (2) The Punjab Security of State Act, 1949; (3) The Bihar Maintenance of Public Order Act, 1949; (4) The West Bengal (Prevention of Violent Activities) Act, 1970; (5) The U. P. Gangsters and Anti-social Activities (Prevention) Act (7 of 1986); (6) The J. & K. Enemy, Agents Ordinance No. VIII of San 2005; (7) The Maharashtra Prevention of Dangerous Activities of Slumlords, Bootleggers and Drug Offenders Act, 198 1; (8) The Karnataka Prevention of Dangerous Activities of Bootleggers, Drug Offenders, Goondas, Gamblers, Immoral Traffic and Slum Grabbers Act, 1985 it has been said that all those laws fall within the ambit of 'public order' appearing in Entry of List II.

Mr Balwant Singh Malik, in support of his contention, cited the following decisions declaring competency of the Provinces/States of the Federation/Union to make laws under 'public order': (1) Lakhi Naravan Das v. Province of Bihar2, (2) Romesh Thappar v. State of MadraS3, (3) Rev. Stainislaus v. State of M. P. 4 and (4) Ashok Kumar Dixit v. State of U. P. 5 48. Though, according to him, the individual States are legislatively competent to provide for the maintenance of public order by creating new offenses and by taking other measures within the States, if a situation with regard to the maintenance of public order concerns more than one State or the country as a whole, then it may be necessary for the Parliament to step in under Articles 249, 250 and 252 of the Constitution (which provisions have, however, not been relied upon when enacting the TADA Act) and enact the law.

However, this will not justify giving any other meaning to Entry 1 of List III, namely, 'Criminal law' and Entry in List II, namely, 'Public order' read with Entry 64 and Entry 65 of that list. 49. Elaborating some of the entries of List II, it has been urged that the legislative power of the State to enact laws under 'Public order' is contained in Entry I of List II and the power of the State to create the police investigating agency is under Entry 2 of List II and the legislative power to vest jurisdiction and confer powers on courts to try such State offenses calls under Entry 65 of List II and that a combined reading of the excluding clause of Entry I of List III and Entry 93 of List I and Entry 64 of List II completely exempts offenses relating to 'Public order' from the heading, Criminal law' under Entry I of List III.

2 AIR 1950 FC 59: 51 Cri LI 921: 1949 FCR 693 3 1950 SCR 594: AIR 1950 SC 124: 51 Cri LJ 1514 4 (1977) 1 SCC 677: 1977 SCC (Cri) 147: (1977) 2 SCR 611 5 AIR 1987 All 235: 1987 All Cri R 236: 1987 All LJ 806 (FB) 628 50. It has been further urged that the legislative power of the Parliament under Articles 245 and 246(1) and (2) read with List I and List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution in regard to creating offenses, under Entry 93 of List I extends only to matters enumerated in that list and under Entry 1 of List III in regard to matters in subsequent entries of that list. 51.

Supplementing the above arguments, Mr Ram Jethmalani, Senior Counsel advanced the other facet of the argument stating that this Act (28 of 1987) in 'pith and substance' relates to 'Public order' as reflected from its preamble itself declaring the Act to be an Act to make special provisions for the prevention of and for coping with terrorist and disruptive activities and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The 'pith and substance' of the Act, according to him, is in Sections 3, 4, 5 and 6 to which the rest of the sections are merely incidental to or necessary for the implementation of the paramount purpose of the statute and that if the 'pith and substance' of the legislation is covered by a particular entry, any incidental encroachment on some other entry does not change the character of the Act.

The amendments brought under Act 28 of 1987 creating special courts called Designated Courts, prescribing new procedure and inserting some provisions with regard to the admission of evidence in trials before the Designated Courts, would justify that these amendments fall within Entry 2 and Entry 12 of List III whilst the Act remains as one failing under Entry I of List II. 52. In support of his submission with regard to the doctrine of 'pith and substance', he referred to the decisions in (1) Prafulla Kumar Mukherjee v. Bank of Commerce Ltd. 6, (2) Ram Krishna Ramnath Agarwal v. Secretary, Municipal Committee7, and (3) Kerala State Electricity Board v. Indian Aluminum Co. 8 The learned counsel also cited two other decisions with regard to the scope of Entry 2 (sic 1) of List II, those being, (1) Romesh Thappar3 wherein the Court after approving a passage from Stephen's Criminal Law of England has held that unlawful assemblies, riots, insurrections, rebellions etc.

are all offenses against public order, the difference among them being only a difference of degree, and (2) Superintendent, Central Prison v. Dr Ram Manohar Lohia9. 53. Mr Hardev Singh in his written arguments in Writ Petition No 15432 of 1984 which have been filed by the petitioner, Mr Amrinder Singh as a public interest litigant challenging the constitutional validity of Act 61 of 1984 raised a similar contention that the Terrorist Affected Areas (Special Courts) Act, 1984 is unconstitutional for want of legislative competence. 54. Mr K. T. S.

Tulsi, the learned Additional Solicitor General in hi: attempt to expose the fallacy of the above submissions stated that the highly 6 AIR 1947 PC 60: 74 IA 23: 51 CWN 599 7 1950 SCR 15: AIR 1950 SC 11 8 (1976) 1 SCC 466: (1976) 1 SCR 552 3 1950 SCR 594: AIR 1950 SC 124: 51 Cri LJ 1514 9 (1960) 2 SCR 821: AIR 1960 SC 633: 1960 Cri LJ 1002 629 classified and strictly confidential information collected by and received from the Intelligence Organisation, which information is not to be disclosed in public interest, unmistakably unfolds that the secessionists' forces working to destabilize the sovereignty of India and its integrity are being encouraged by the neighboring countries and that there are many training camps on the borders of India where training is imparted to militants and terrorists not only in the use of sophisticated and heavy weapons including rocket launchers, machine guns, mines, explosives and wireless, communications but also to indulge in illicit trafficking of narcotic drugs, and psychotropic substances which unassailable facts are a matter of common knowledge and which can be taken into consideration by way of judicial notice.

Many countries across the borders, according to him, are supplying deadly arms and ammunitions and are providing sanctuary to the extremist elements as a base for their training and doctrination. 55. In view of the above outrageous and volcanic circumstances and situations, in pith and substance, the Act is not related to 'Public order' falling under Entry 1 of List II but relates to the 'Defence of India' falling under Entry 1, as well as Entries 2 and 2-A of List I read with Entries 1 and 2 of List III. 56. According to Mr Tulsi, the submissions of the other side that the subject of the impugned Act falls under Entry 1 of List II, namely, 'Public order' is incorrect and fallacious. 57.

We shall now carefully examine the submissions made by the respective parties in the light of the import and intendment of the Acts under challenge and find out as to whether this Act (TADA) falls under Entry 1 of List II, namely, 'Public order' or under Entry 1 of List I, namely, 'Defence of India' as well as Entries 2 and 2-A of List I read with Entries I (Criminal law) and 2 (Criminal procedure) of List III. But before we do so, we would briefly take note of the constitutional scheme relating to distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States. 58. Under clause (1) of Article 246, notwithstanding anything in clauses (2) and (3) of the said article, Parliament has exclusive power to make laws with respect to any of the 97 subjects enumerated in List I of the Seventh Schedule. Under clause (3) of the said article, the State Legislatures have exclusive powers to make laws with respect to 66 items enumerated in List II.

The powers in respect of the 47 items enumerated in List III are concurrent i. e. both Parliament and the Legislature of any State, subject to clause (1) have power to make laws. With regard to a law made in respect of matters enumerated in the Concurrent List provision has been made in Article 254 which gives overriding effect to a law made by Parliament in the event of there being any repugnancy between the said law and the law made by the Legislature of a State and the State law would prevail over a law made by Parliament only if such State law was enacted after the law made by Parliament and has received the assent of the President. While examining the question of legislative competence of Parliament to make a law, the proper 630 approach is to determine whether the subject-matter of the legislation falls in the State List which Parliament cannot enter. 59.

If the law does not fall in the State List, Parliament would have the legislative competence to pass the law by virtue of the residuary powers under Article 248 read with Entry 97 of the Union List and it would not be necessary to go into the question whether it falls under any entry in the Union List or Concurrent List [See (i) Union of India v. H. S. Dhillon10 (SCC at pp. 799, 803; SCR at pp. 61 and 67- 68), (ii) S. P. Mittal v. Union of India' 1 (SCC at p. 82, paras 70 and 72; SCR at pp. 769-770), and (iii) Khandelwal Metal and Engg. Works v. Union of India12 SCC at p. 641, para 42]. It is, therefore, necessary to examine whether the Act falls within the ambit of Entry 1 read with Entry 64 of the State List as contended by the learned counsel for the petitioners. But before we do so we may briefly indicate the principles that are applied for construing the entries in the legislative lists. It has been laid.

down that the entries must not be construed in a narrow and pedantic sense and that widest amplitude must be given to the language of these entries. Sometimes the entries in different lists or the same list may be found to overlap or to be in direct conflict with each other. In that event it is the duty of the court to find out its true intent and purpose and to examine the particular legislation in its 'pith and substance' to determine whether it fits in one or other of the lists. [See : Synthetics and Chemicals Ltd. v. State of U. p. 13 (SCC at pp. 150-51, para 67; SCR at p. 673); India Cement Ltd. v. State of T. N. 14 (SCC at p. 22, para 18; SCR at p. 705)]. 60. This doctrine of 'pith and substance' is applied when the legislative competence of a legislature with regard to a particular enactment is challenged with reference to the entries in the various lists i. e. a law dealing with the subject in one list is also touching on a subject in another list.

In such a case, what has to be ascertained is the pith and substance of the enactment. On a scrutiny of the Act in question, if found, that the legislation is in substance one on a matter assigned to the legislature enacting that statute, then that Act as a whole must be held to be valid notwithstanding any incidental trenching upon matters beyond its competence i. e. on a matter included in the list belonging to the other legislature. To say differently, incidental encroachment is not altogether forbidden. 61. Lord Porter speaking for the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Prafulla Kumar Mukherjee v. Bank of Commerce Ltd. , Khulna6 quoted with approval the observations of Sir Maurice Gwyer, C. J.

in 10 (1971) 2 SCC 779: (1972) 2 SCR 33 11 (1983) 1 SCC 51 : (1983) 1 SCR 729 12 (1985) 3 SCC 620: 1985 SCC (Tax) 466: 1985 Supp 1 SCR 750,775 13 (1990) 1 SCC 109: 1989 Supp 1 SCR 623 14 (1990) 1 SCC 12: 1989 Supp 1 SCR 692 6 AIR 1947 PC 60: 74 IA 23: 51 CWN 599 631 Subrahmanyan Chettiar v. Muttuswami Goundan15 to the effect: (IA at p. 43) "It must inevitably happen from time to time that legislation though purporting to deal with a subject in one list, touches also upon a subject in another list, and the different provisions of the enactment may be so closely intertwined that blind adherence to a strictly verbal interpretation would result in a large number of statutes being declared invalid because the Legislature enacting them may appear to have legislated in a forbidden sphere.

Hence the rule which has been evolved by the Judicial Committee, whereby the impugned statute is examined to ascertain its pith and substance or its true nature and character for the purpose of determining whether it is legislation with respect to matters in this list or in that. " Thereafter, their Lordship of the Privy Council held: (IA at p. 43) "Subjects must still overlap and where they do the question must be asked what in pith and substance is the effect of the enactment of which complaint is made and in what list is its true nature and character to be found. If these questions could not be asked, much beneficent legislation would be stifled at birth, and many of the subjects entrusted to Provincial Legislation could never effectively be dealt with. Thirdly, the extent of the invasion by the Provinces into subjects enumerated in the Federal List has to be considered.

No doubt it is an important matter, not, as their Lordships think, because the validity of an Act can be determined by discriminating between degrees of invasion, but for the purpose of determining what is the pith an d substance of the impugned Act. Its provisions may advance so far into federal territory as to show that its true nature is not concerned with provincial matters, but the question is not, has it trespassed more or less, but is the trespass, whatever it be, such as to show that the pith and substance of the impugned Act is not money-lending but promissory notes or banking? Once that question is determined the Act falls on one or the other side of the line and can be seen as valid or invalid according to its true content. " See also (1) The Central Provinces and Berar Sales of Motor Spirit and Lubricants Taxation Act No. XIV of 1938, In re16, (2) Governor-General in Council v. Province of Madrasl7, (3) Union of India v. H. S. Dhillon10, and (4) State of J&K v. M. S.

Farooqi18 wherein the dictum laid down in Subrahmanyan Chettiar15 has been referred to. 62. Reference may now be made to the relevant entries, namely Entries 1 and 64 of State List which are as under: 15 1940 FCR 188: AIR 1941 FC 47 16 AIR 1939 FC 1 :(1939) 1 MLJ Supp 1 17 AIR 1945 PC 98: 72 IA 91: 1945 FCR 179 10 (1971) 2 SCC 779: (1972) 2 SCR 33 18 (1972) 1 SCC 872: (1972) 3 SCR 881 632 " 1. Public order (but not including the use of any naval, military or air force or any other armed force of the Union or of any other force subject to the control of the Union or of any contingent or unit thereof in aid of the civil power). 64. Offenses against laws with respect to any of the matters in this List. " 63.

Under the Government of India Act, 1935, the Provincial Legislature had been conferred the power to enact laws in respect of matters enumerated in the Provincial List and Item I of the Provincial List covered the field of " public order (but not including the use of His Majesty's naval, military or air forces in aid of the civil power)". 64. In Lakhi Narayan Das v. Province of Bihar2 the expression "public order" has been described as a 'most comprehensive term' and it has been held that "maintenance of public order within a province is primarily the concern of that province". It has also been further observed that if the legislature has not exceeded its powers, it is not for the courts to criticise the wisdom or policy of the legislature. In Romesh Thappar v.

State of Madras3 while holding that "public order" is an expression of wide connotation and signifies that state of tranquility which prevails among the members of a political society as a result of the internal regulations enforced by the Government which they have established, the Court has drawn a distinction between "public order" and security of a State. After referring to Entry 3 of the Concurrent List, the Court has observed: "The Constitution thus requires a line to be drawn in the field of public order or tranquility marking off, may be, roughly, the boundary between those serious and aggravated forms of public disorder which are calculated to endanger the security of the State and the relatively minor breaches of the peace of a purely local significance, treating for this purpose differences in degree as if they were differences in kind. " 65. In Ram Manohar Lohia (Dr) v. State of Bihar' 9, Hidayatullah, J.

(as the leaned Chief Justice then was) has brought out the distinction between "law and order", "public order" and "security of the State" in the following observation: "It will thus appear that just as 'public order' in the rulings of this Court (earlier cited) was said to comprehend disorders of less gravity than those affecting "security of State", "law and order" also comprehends disorders of less gravity than those affecting "public order". One has to imagine three concentric circles. Law and order represents the largest circle within which is the next circle representing public order and the smallest circle represents security of State. It is then easy to see that an act may affect law and order but not public order just as an act may affect public order but not security of the State. " 2 AIR 1950 FC 59: 51 Cri LJ 921: 1949 FCR 693 3 1950 SCR 594: AIR 1950 SC 124: 51 Cri LJ 1514 19 (1966) 1 SCR 709: AIR 1966 SC 740: 1966 Cri LJ 608 633 66.

Having regard to the limitation placed by Article 245(1) on the legislative power of the Legislature of the State in the matter of enactment of laws having application within the territorial limits of the State only, the ambit of the field of legislation with respect to "public order" under Entry 1 in the State List has to be confined to disorders of lesser gravity having an impact within the boundaries of the State. Activities of a more serious nature which threaten the security and integrity of the country as a whole would not be within the legislative field assigned to the States under Entry 1 of the State List but would fall within the ambit of Entry 1 of the Union List relating to defence of India and in any event under the residuary power conferred on Parliament under Article 248 read with Entry 97 of the Union List.

The petitioners can succeed in their challenge to the validity of the Act with regard to the legislative competence of Parliament, only if it can be said that the Act deals with activities relating to public order which are confined to the territories of a particular State. 67.

In order to ascertain the pith and substance of the impugned enactments, the preamble, Statement of Objects and Reasons, the legal significance and the intendment of the provisions of these Acts, their scope and the nexus with the object that these Acts seek to subserve must be objectively examined in the background of the totality of the series of events due to the unleashing of terrorism, waves after waves, leading to the series of bomb blasts causing extensive damage to the properties, killing of hundreds of people, the blood-curdling incidents during which the blood of the sons of the soil had been spilled over the soil of their motherland itself, the ruthless massacre of the defenseless and innocent people especially of poor as if they were all 'marked for death' or for 'human sacrifice' and the sudden outbreak of violence, mass killing of army personnel, jawans of Border Security Force, government officials, politicians, statesmen, heads of religious sects by using bombs and sophisticated lethal weapons thereby injecting a sense of insecurity in the minds of the people, with the intention of destabilizing the sovereignty or overthrowing the Government as established by law.

The way in which the alleged violent crimes is shown to have been perpetrated, the manner in which they have been cruelly executed, the vulnerable territorial frontiers which form part of the scene of unprecedented and unprovoked occurrences, lead to an inescapable illation and conclusion that the activities of the terrorists and disruptionists pose a serious challenge to the very existence of sovereignty as well as to the security of India notwithstanding the fact whether such threats or challenges come by way of external aggression or internal disturbance. 68. The terrorism, the Act (TADA) contemplates, cannot be classified as mere disturbance of 'public order' disturbing the "even tempo of the life of community of any specified locality" in the words of Hidayatullah, C. J. in Arun Ghosh v. State of W. B.

20 but it is much more, rather a grave emergent situation created either by external forces particularly at the 20 (1970) 1 SCC 98: 1970 SCC (Cri) 67: (1970) 3 SCR 288 634 frontiers of this country or by anti-nationals throwing a challenge to the very existence and sovereignty of the country in its democratic polity. 69. The above view gets strengthened from the very definition of the expression 'terrorist act' as defined in Section 2(1)(h) of the Act 28 of 1987 stating that the said expression "has the meaning assigned to it in sub-section (1) of Section 3" according to which the intention to commit any offence or offenses specified therein should be for one or more clearly defined objectives as expressly mentioned in Section 3(1) reading: "3.

(1) Whoever with intent to overawe the Government as by law established or to strike terror in the people or any section of the people or to alienate any section of the people or to adversely affect the harmon y amongst different sections of the people does any act or thing...... 70. Similarly, the expression 'disruptive activity' as defined under Section 2(1)(d) has the meaning assigned to it in Section 4. Section 4(1) prescribes only the quantum of punishment for disruptive activities. Section 4(2) gives the meaning of that expression thus: "4.

(2) For the purposes of sub-section (1), 'disruptive activity' means any action taken, whether by act or by speech or through any other media or in any other manner whatsoever,- (i) which questions, disrupts or is intended to disrupt, whether directly or indirectly, the sovereignty and territorial integrity of India; or (ii) which is intended to bring about or supports any claim, whether directly or indirectly, for the cession of any part of India or the secession of any part of India from the Union. Explanation. - For this purposes of this subsection,- (a) 'cession' includes the admission of any claim of any foreign country to any part of India, and (b) 'secession' includes the assertion of any claim to determine whether a part of India will remain within the Union. " 71.

The above definitions, would themselves make it clear that the expression "Terrorist and Disruptive Activities" deployed in the preamble of the Act (28 of 1987 TADA) contemplates the commission of any specified offence or offenses with a specific intention one of which being "to overawe the Government as by law established" [vide Section 3(1)] and "any action taken, whether by act or by speech or through any other media or in any other manner whatsoever, which questions, disrupts or is intended to disrupt, whether directly or indirectly, the sovereignty and territorial integrity of India; or which is intended to bring about or supports any claim, whether directly or indirectly, for the cession of any part of India or the secession of any part of India from the Union". [Vide Section 4(2). ] 72.

Therefore, the submission made by Mr Jethmalani that the preamble of the Act gives a clue that the terrorist and disruptive activities only mean a 635 virulent form of the disruption of public order is inconceivable and unacceptable. 73. In our view, the impugned legislation does not fall under Entry 1 of List II, namely, 'Public order'. No other Entry of List II has been invoked. The impugned Act, therefore, falls within the legislative competence of Parliament in view of Article 248 read with Entry 97 of List I and it is not necessary to consider whether it falls under any of the entries in List I or List III. We are, however, of the opinion that the impugned Act could fall within the ambit of Entry 1 of List I, namely, 'Defence of India'. 74. Mr Hardev Singh in his written arguments also challenged the vires of Act 61 of 1984 on many grounds (about which we shall deal separately while examining the various provisions of TADA Act, one of which being the legislative competence).

The learned counsel has questioned the. legal competence of the impugned Act on the same line of arguments as advanced by Mr Balwant Singh Malik. In support of his contention, he cited Ram Manohar Lohia (Dr) v. State of Biharl9 wherein this Court while dealing with Rule 30(1)(b) of the Defence of India Rules, 1962 had explained the difference between 'public order', 'law and order' and 'security of India'. 75. In Act 61 of 1984, the expression 'terrorist affected area' is defined in Section 2(1)(i) as meaning an area declared as a terrorist affected area under Section 3. Section 3(1) reads thus: "3.

(1) If the Central Government is of the opinion that offenses of the nature specified in the Schedule are being committed in any area by terrorists on such a scale and in such a manner that it is expedient for the purpose of coping with the activities of such terrorists to have recourse to the provisions of this Act, it may, by notification,- (a)declare such area to be a terrorist affected area; and (b)...... 76. The word 'terrorist' is defined in Section 2(1)(h) as follows: "2.

(1)(h) 'terrorist' means a person who indulges in wanton killing of persons or in violence or in the disruption of services or means of communications essential to the community or in damaging property with a view to- (i) putting the public or any section of the public in fear; or (ii) affecting adversely the harmony between different religious, racial, language or regional groups or castes or communities; or (iii) coercing or overawing the Government established by law; or (iv) endangering the sovereignty and integrity of India. " 77. The above definition also requires more or less the intention as required under Section 3(1) of TADA Act, namely, Act 28 of 1987, and also the motive for commission of the terrorist acts is akin to that of Section 4 of 19 (1966) 1 SCR 709: AIR 1966 SC 740: 1966 Cri LJ 608 636 the TADA Act of 1987, i. e. , one of the motives being to endanger the sovereignty and integrity of India.

In short, the definition of the expressions 'terrorist act' and 'disruptive activity' under Section 2(1)(h) and (d) of Act 28 of 1987 (TADA) respectively are conjointly brought under the definition of the word 'terrorist act' in Act 61 of 1984. Therefore, the Act of 1984 also cannot be said to have contemplated only 'Public order' but envisages a more grave situation threatening the sovereignty and integrity of India. 78. For all the reasons stated above, we hold that the contention that the Acts 61 of 1984, 31 of 1985 and 28 of 1987 are ultra vires on the ground of suffering from lack of legislative competence and as such the entire Acts are liable to be struck down, is to be rejected and accordingly that contention is rejected as devoid of any merit. 79.

The next spinal issue arises for our deepest probe, and scrutiny is whether the impugned Acts in general or any of the provisions thereof in particular contravene any other fundamental right specified in Part III of the Constitution. All the learned counsel who have challenged the vires of these Acts and the provisions thereof have advanced their legal arguments both topic-wise as well as with reference to the individual provisions of the Acts. 80. To begin with their polemics, it was with reference to the proposition of speedy trial which is the main objective of these Acts under challenge.

It was the submission of the learned counsel that though the professed object of Act 61 of 1984 (Special Courts Act) and of TADA Acts (Acts 31 of 1985 and 28 of 1987) is for speedy trial of the scheduled offenses committed within the Terrorist Affected Areas (Special Courts) Act, 1984 and of the offenses falling within the definition of "terrorist act" and "disruptive activity" under the TADA Acts, in reality these Acts make not only a drastic departure from the prevalent procedure in respect of the trial of similar offenses in regular courts, but also serious inroads in the substantive rights in many respects causing irreparable erosion of the independence of judiciary and totally undermining both the constitutional precepts and lex scripta (statute law).

According to them the procedural provisions of those Acts under the guise of speedy trial violate the venerated basic principles of fair trial, held dear all along, namely, that every person will be presumed innocent till his guilt is proved beyond reasonable doubt, "according to the procedure established by law". 81. The procedure prescribed under these Acts does not meet the requirements implicit in Article 21 of the Constitution because the said procedure is the antithesis of a just, fair and reasonable procedure. Under the guise of providing speedy trial not only the procedural safeguards have been completely denied to the accused who are subjected to trial by Special Courts under 1984 Act or by the Designated Courts under the TADA Acts, but also the Acts have been substantially altered to the prejudice of the accused. Therefore, the procedure prescribed by the Acts which falls foul of Article 21 should be held to be arbitrary, unfair, oppressive or unreasonable.

In support of the above argument, they drew our attention to Maneka Gandhi 637 v. Union of India21 wherein it has been held that any law which deprives a person of his life and liberty must be just and reasonable. To borrow the words of Krishna Iyer, J. in that case (SCC p. 338, para 85) " 'procedure' in Article 21 means fair, not formal procedure. 'Law' is reasonable law, not any enacted piece. " 82. The preamble of Terrorist Affected Areas (Special Courts) Act, 1984 (61 of 1984) reads that it is "An Act to provide for the speedy trial of certain offenses in terrorist affected areas and for matters connected therewith". The object of the preamble is manifested in Sections 3(1) and 4(1) of that Act reading "For the purpose of providing for speedy trial of scheduled offenses committed in a judicial zone, the Central Government may establish, by notification, a Special Court......

Though there is no explicit manifestation of such expression, 'speedy trial' found either in the preamble or in any of the provisions of the TADA Acts as in the Terrorist Affected Areas (Special Courts) Act, 1984, the scope and intendment of the various provisions of these TADA Acts perceivably convey that the TADA Acts also contemplate speedy trial of cases. In fact, the 'Statement of Objects and Reasons' of Act 31 of 1985 reading, "This is a new and overt phase of terrorism which requires to be taken serious note of and dealt with effectively and expeditiously" makes it clear that the constitution of Designated Courts was for the speedy and expeditious trial of offenses under the impugned legislation. 83. Now let us examine the principle of speedy trial underlying in Act 28 of 1987 (TADA).

The constitution of one or more Designated Courts either by the Central Government or the State Government by notification in the Official Gazette for notified area/areas to try specified cases or class or group of cases (vide Section 9 of Act 28 of 1987); the procedure prescribed for disposal of cases by making every offence punishable under the Act or any rule made thereunder to be a cognizable offence within the meaning of clause (c) of Section 2 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (vide Section 20); the dispensation of the committal proceedings [vide Section 14(1)1; the vesting of jurisdiction on the Designated Courts to try all offenses under the Act by giving precedence over the trial of any other case against the accused in any other court (not being a Designated Court) notwithstanding anything contained in the Code or any other law (vide Section 17); the conferment of power on Designated Courts to try the offenses triable by them punishable with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years or with fine or with both in a summary way in accordance with the procedure prescribed in the Code notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) of Section 260 or 262 of the Code and also as far as may be by applying the provisions of Sections 263 to 265 [vide Section 14(2)] and the vesting powers of a Court of Session on the Designated Courts for the purpose of trial of any offence [vide Section 14(3)] and the empowerment of authority on the Designated Courts to proceed with the trial even in the absence of accused or pleader for the 21 (1978) 1 SCC 248: (1978) 2 SCR 621 638 reasons to be recorded by it, but subject to the right of accused to recall witnesses for cross-examination [vide Section 14(5)]; the right of appeal straight to the Supreme Court as a matter of right against any judgment, sentence or order not being an interlocutory order [vide Section 19(1)] etc.

all postulate the concept of speedy trial in spirit under TADA Acts. Speedy Trial 84. The right to a speedy trial is a derivation from a provision of Magna Carta. This principle has also been incorporated into the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 and from there into the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of United States of America which reads, "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial...... It may be pointed out, in this connection, that there is a Federal Act of 1974 called 'Speedy Trial Act' establishing a set of time-limits for carrying out the major events, e. g. , information, indictment, arraignment, in the prosecution of criminal cases. See Black's Law Dictionary, 6th Edn. p. 1400. 85.

The right to a speedy trial is not only an important safeguard to prevent undue and oppressive incarceration, to minimise anxiety and concern accompanying the accusation and to limit the possibility of impairing the ability of an accused to defend himself but also there is a societal interest in providing a speedy trial. This right has been actuated in the recent past and the courts have laid down a series of decisions opening up new vistas of fundamental rights. In fact, lot of cases are coming before the courts for quashing of proceedings on the ground of inordinate and undue delay stating that the invocation of this right even need not await formal indictment or charge. 86. The concept of speedy trial is read into Article 21 as an essential part of the fundamental right to life and liberty guaranteed and preserved under our Constitution.

The right to speedy trial begins with the actual restraint imposed by arrest and consequent incarceration and continues at all stages, namely, the stage of investigation, inquiry, trial, appeal and revision so that any possible prejudice that may result from impermissible and avoidable delay from the time of the commission of the offence till it consummates into a finality, can be averted. In this context, it may be noted that the constitutional guarantee of speedy trial is properly reflected in Section 309 of the Code of Criminal Procedure. 87. This Court in Hussainara Khatoon (1) v. Home Secretary, State of Bihar22 while dealing with Article 21 of the Constitution of India has observed thus: (SCC p. 89, para 5) "No procedure which does not ensure a reasonably quick trial can be regarded as 'reasonable, fair or just' and it would fall foul of Article 2 1.

There can, therefore, be no doubt that speedy trial, and by speedy trial we mean reasonably expeditious trial, is an integral and essential part of th e fundamental right to life and liberty enshrined in Article 21. The question which would, however, arise is as to what would be the 22 (1980) 1 SCC 81: 1980 SCC (Cri) 23: (1979) 3 SCR 169(1) 639 consequence if a person accused of an offence is denied speedy trial and is sought to be deprived of his liberty by imprisonment as a result of a long delayed trial in violation of his fundamental right under Article 21. Would he be entitled to be released unconditionally freed from the charge leveled against him on the ground that trying him after an unduly long period of time and convicting him after such trial would constitute violation of his fundamental right under Article 21. " See also (1) Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1)23, (2) Hussainara Khatoon (1) v. Home Secretary, State of Bihar22, (3) Hussainara Khatoon (IV) v.

Home Secretary, State of Bihar, Patna24, (4) Hussainara Khatoon (VI) v. Home Secretary, State of Bihar, Govt. of Bihar, Patna25, (5) Kadra Pahadia v. State of Bihar (II)26, (6) T. V. Vatheeswaran v. State of T. N. 27, and (7) Abdul Rehman Antulay v. R. S. Nayak28. 88. Thus this Court by a line of judicial pronouncements has emphasised and re-emphasised that speedy trial is one of the facets of the fundamental right to life and liberty enshrined in Article 21 and the law must ensure reasonable, just and fair' procedure which has a creative connotation after the decision of this Court in Maneka Gandhi21. 89. It is appropriate to refer to two of the decisions of the Supreme Court of United States of America dealing with the scope of speedy trial which is a guaranteed fundamental right incorporated by the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of United States. 90. In Beavers v. Haubert29 the Supreme Court of USA has observed thus: (US p. 87: L Ed p.

954) "The right of a speedy trial is necessarily relative. It is consistent with delays and depends upon circumstances. It secures rights to a defendant. It does not preclude the rights of public justice. " 91. Recognising the right of an accused to approach the court for dismissal of a criminal proceeding on the ground of speedy trial, the US Supreme Court held in Strunk v. United States3O that the denial of an accused's right to speedy trial results in a decision to dismiss the indictment or in reversion of a conviction. See also United States v. MacDonald". 92. Of course, no length of time is per se too long to pass scrutiny under this principle nor the accused is called upon the show the actual prejudice by delay of disposal of cases.

On the other hand, the court has to adopt a 23 (1978) 4 SCC 494: 1979 SCC (Cri) 155: (1979) 1 SCR 392 22 (1980) 1 SCC 81: 1980 SCC (Cri) 23: (1979) 3 SCR 169(1) 24 (1980) 1 SCC 98: 1980 SCC (Cri) 40: (1979) 3 SCR 532 (IV) 25 (1980) 1 SCC 115: 1980 SCC (Cri) 57: (1979) 3 SCR 1276 (VI) 26 (1983) 2 SCC 104: 1983 SCC (Cri) 361 27 (1983) 2 SCC 68: 1983 SCC (Cri) 342: (1983) 2 SCR 348 28 (1992) 1 SCC 225: 1992 SCC (Cri) 93 21 (1978) 1 SCC 248: (1978) 2 SCR 621 29 198 US 77, 87: 49 L Ed 950, 954 (1905) 30 412 US 434: 37 L Ed 2d 57 (1973) 31 435 US 850: 56 L Ed 2d 18 (1977) 640 balancing approach by taking note of the possible prejudices and disadvantages to be suffered by the accused by avoidable delay and to determine whether the accused in a criminal proceeding has been deprived of his right of having speedy trial with unreasonable delay which could be identified by the factors (1) length of delay, (2) the justification for the delay, (3) the accused's assertion of his right to speedy trial, and (4) prejudice caused to the accused by such delay.

However, the fact of delay is dependent on the circumstances of each case because reasons for delay will vary, such as delay in investigation on account of the widespread ramification of crimes and its designed network either nationally or internationally, the deliberate absence of witness or witnesses, crowded dockets on the file of the court etc. 93. When the issue under debate is examined in the light of the above briefly enunciated principle of speedy trial, the said principle, expressly contemplated in the Terrorist Affected Areas (Special Courts) Act, 1984 (61 of 1984) and manifested in the two TADA Acts under various provisions as pointed out supra, is evidently incorporated as the essential feature of those Acts. There can be no controversy or difference of opinion in invoking the speedy trial of cases under the impugned Acts but the question is whether the procedure prescribed violates any of the fundamental rights of the Constitution. 94.

Yet another argument qua the just and fair trial read into Article 21 has been submitted firstly contending when there is no proclamation of emergency in operation and when all the fundamental rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution are available for enforcement, the right to have a fair trial cannot be whittled down or militated against; and secondly even when a proclamation of emergency is in operation, the President under Article 359(1) of the Constitution of India can by order declare that the right to move any court for the enforcement of the fundamental rights conferred by Part III and all the proceedings in any court for the enforcement of such rights, shall remain suspended during the period of emergency but, not the rights conferred by Articles 20 and 21. To put in nutshell, the enforcement of the fundamental rights conferred under Articles 20 and 21 of the Constitution can be exercised and enforced even during emergency.

To better understand, the legislative history with regard to the exemption of Articles 20 and 21 from operation even during emergency may be briefly recapitulated. 95. Prior to the enactment of the Constitution (Fortyfourth Amendment) Act, 1978 which came into force, w. e. f. June 20,, 1979, all the rights conferred by Part III including the rights under Articles 20 and 21 could be suspended during emergency. But the exemption was given by the above Amendment Act for the reasons spelt out