Indian Evidence Act, 1872

THE INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT, 1872

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Section 4 — “May Presume

THE INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT, 1872 Last updated:-13-3-2020 _________ ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS __________ Preamble. PART I RELEVANCY OF FACTS CHAPTER I. –– PRELIMINARY SECTIONS 1. Interpretation-clause. “Court”. “Fact”. “Relevant”. “Facts in issue”. “Document”. “Evidence”. “Proved”. “Disproved”. “Not proved”. “India”. 4. “May Presume.” “Shall presume.” “Conclusive proof”. CHAPTER II. ––OF THE RELEVANCY OF FACTS 5. Evidence may be given of facts in issue and relevant facts.

SECTIONS

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Facts showing existence of state of mind, or of body, or bodily feeling. Facts bearing on question whether act was accidental or intentional. Existence of course of business when relevant. Admission–– by party to proceeding or his agent; by suitor in representative character; by party interested in subject-matter; by person from whom interest derived. Admissions by persons whose position must be proved as against party to suit. Admissions by persons expressly referred to by party to suit.

SECTIONS

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Relevancy of certain evidence for proving, in subsequent proceeding, the truth of facts therein stated. STATEMENTS MADE UNDER SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES 34. Entries in books of account when relevant. Relevancy of entry in public record made in performance of duty. Relevancy of statements in maps, charts and plans. Judgments, etc., other than those mentioned in sections 40, 41 and 42, when relevant.

SECTIONS

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Section 58 — Facts admitted need not be proved. CHAPTER IV

Section 60 — Oral evidence must be direct. CHAPTER V

Facts of which Court must take judicial notice. CHAPTER V.— OF DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 61. Proof of documents by primary evidence. Cases in which secondary evidence relating to documents may be given. Special provisions as to evidence relating to electronic record. Admissibility of electronic records.

SECTIONS

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Section 90A — Presumption as to electronic records five years old. CHAPTER VI

Presumption as to maps or plans made by authority of Government. Presumption as to collections of laws and reports of decisions. Presumptions as to powers-of-attorney. Presumption as to electronic agreements. Presumption as to electronic records and electronic signatures. Presumption as to Electronic Signature Certificates.

SECTIONS

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Section 114A — Presumption as to absence of consent in certain prosecution for rape CHAPTER VIII

Section 117 — Estoppel of acceptor of bill of exchange, bailee or licensee. CHAPTER IX

Burden of proving fact especially within knowledge. Burden of proving death of person known to have been alive within thirty years. Burden of proving that person is alive who has not been heard of for seven years. Burden of proof as to relationship in the cases of partners, landlord and tenant, principal and agent. Proof of good faith in transactions where one party is in relation of active confidence. Presumption as to certain offences.

SECTIONS

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Section 134 — Number of witnesses. CHAPTER X

Witness not excused from answering on ground that answer will criminate. CHAPTER X.––OF THE EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES 135. Order of production and examination of witnesses. Judge to decide as to admissibility of evidence. Cross-examination of person called to produce a document. Cross-examination as to previous statements in writing.

SECTIONS

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Section 166 — Power of jury or assessors to put questions. CHAPTER XI

When witness may use copy of document to refresh memory. Testimony to facts stated in document mentioned in section159. Right of adverse party as to writing used to refresh memory. Giving, as evidence, of document called for and produced on notice. Using, as evidence, of document production of which was refused on notice. Judge’s power to put questions or order production.

THE INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT, 1872

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Section 1 — Short title

Section 2 — [Repeal of enactments.].––Rep. by the Repealing Act, 1938 (1 of 1938), s. 2 and Schedule. 3. Interpretation-clause

THE INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT, 1872 1 ACT NO. 1 OF 1872 [15th March, 1872.] Preamble.—WHEREAS it is expedient to consolidate, define and amend the law of Evidence; It is hereby enacted as follows: — PART I RELEVANCY OF FACTS CHAPTER I.––PRELIMINARY 1. Short title. ––This Act may be called the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. 2 3 Extent.––It extends to the whole of India [ ***] and applies to all judicial proceedings in or before 4 any Court, including Courts-martial, [other than Courts-martial convened under the Army Act (44 & 45 5 6 Vict., c. 58)] [the Naval Discipline Act [29 & 30 Vict., 109]; or *** the Indian Navy (Discipline) Act, 7 8 1934 (34 of 1934),] [or the Air Force Act (7 Geo. Interpretation-clause.––In this Act the following words and expressions are used in the following senses, unless a contrary intention appears from the context: –– 9 10 “Court”.––“Court” includes all Judges and Magistrates , and all persons, except arbitrators, legally authorised to take evidence. “Fact”.––“Fact” means and includes––(1) anything, state of things, or relation of things, capable of being perceived by the senses; (2) any mental condition of which any person is conscious.

“Relevant”. –– One fact is said to be relevant to another when the one is connected with the other in

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“Relevant”. –– One fact is said to be relevant to another when the one is connected with the other in any of the ways referred to in the provisions of this Act relating to the relevancy of facts. “Facts in issue”.–– The expression “facts in issue” means and includes–– any fact from which, either by itself or in connection with other facts, the existence, non-existence, nature or extent of any right, liability, or disability, asserted or denied in any suit or proceeding, necessarily follows. Explanation.––Whenever, under the provisions of the law for the time being in force relating to Civil 1 Procedure, any Court records an issue of fact, the fact to be asserted or denied in the answer to such issue is a fact in issue. Illustrations A is accused of the murder of B. At his trial the following facts may be in issue:–– That A caused B’s death; That A intended to cause B’s death; That A had received grave and sudden provocation from B; That A, at the time of doing the act which caused B’s death, was, by reason of unsoundness of mind, incapable of knowing its nature. 2 “Document”. ––“Document” means any matter expressed or described upon any substance by means of letters, figures or marks, or by more than one of those means, intended to be used, or which may be used, for the purpose of recording that matter. Illustrations 3 A writing is a document; 3 Words printed lithographed or photographed are documents; A map or plan is a document; An inscription on a metal plate or stone is a document; A caricature is a document. “Evidence”. ––“Evidence” means and includes –– (1) all statements which the Court permits or requires to be made before it by witnesses, in relation to matters of fact under inquiry; such statements are called oral evidence; 4 (2) [all documents including electronic records produced for the inspection of the Court;] such documents are called documentary evidence. “Proved”.––A fact is said to be proved when, after considering the matters before it, the Court either believes it to exist, or considers its existence so probable that a prudent man ought, under the circumstances of the particular case, to act upon the supposition that it exists. “Disproved”.––A fact is said to be disproved when, after considering the matters before it, the Court either believes that it does not exist, or considers its non-existence so probable that a prudent man 1.

ought, under the circumstances of the particular case, to act upon the supposition that it does not exist.

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Section 5 — Evidence may be given of facts in issue and relevant facts

Section 6 — Relevancy of facts forming part of same transaction

ought, under the circumstances of the particular case, to act upon the supposition that it does not exist. “Not proved”. –– A fact is said not to be proved when it is neither proved nor disproved. 1 [“India”. –– “India” means the territory of India excluding the State of Jammu and Kashmir.] 2 3 4 [the expressions “Certifying Authority”, “ [electronic signature]”, [(Electronic Signature Certificate], “electronic form”, “electronic records”, “information”, “secure electronic record”, “secure digital signature” and “subscriber” shall have the meanings respectively assigned to them in the Information Technology Act, 2000 (21 of 2000).] 4. “May presume”.––Whenever it is provided by this Act that the Court may presume a fact, it may either regard such fact as proved, unless and until it is disproved, or may call for proof of it. “Shall presume”.––Whenever it is directed by this Act that the Court shall presume a fact, it shall regard such fact as proved, unless and until it is disproved. “Conclusive proof”.––When one fact is declared by this Act to be conclusive proof of another, the Court shall, on proof of the one fact, regard the other as proved, and shall not allow evidence to be given for the purpose of disproving it. CHAPTER II. –– OF THE RELEVANCY OF FACTS 5. Evidence may be given of facts in issue and relevant facts. ––Evidence may be given in any suit or proceeding of the existence of non-existence of every fact in issue and of such other facts as are hereinafter declared to be relevant, and of no others. At A’s trial the following facts are in issue:–– A’s beating B with the club; A’s causing B’s death by such beating; A’s intention to cause B’s death. (b) A suitor does not bring with him, and have in readiness for production at the first hearing of the case, a bond on which he relies. This section does not enable him to produce the bond or prove its contents at a subsequent stage of the proceedings, otherwise than in accordance with the conditions 5 prescribed by the Code of Civil Procedure .

7. Facts which are the occasion, cause or effect of facts in issue. –– Facts which are the occasion,

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Section 7 — Facts which are the occasion, cause or effect of facts in issue

Section 8 — Motive, preparation and previous or subsequent conduct

1 (b) A is accused of waging war against the [Government of India] by taking part in an armed insurrection in which property is destroyed, troops are attacked and gaols are broken open. The occurrence of these facts is relevant, as forming part of the general transaction, though A may not have been present at all of them. (c) A sues B for a libel contained in a letter forming part of a correspondence. Letters between the parties relating to the subject out of which the libel arose, and forming part of the correspondence in which it is contained, are relevant facts, though they do not contain the libel itself. (d) The question is, whether certain goods ordered from B were delivered to A. Facts which are the occasion, cause or effect of facts in issue. –– Facts which are the occasion, cause or effect, immediate or otherwise, of relevant facts, or facts in issue, or which constitute the state of things under which they happened, or which afforded an opportunity for their occurrence or transaction, are relevant. The state of B’s health before the symptoms ascribed to poison, and habits of B, known to A, which afforded an opportunity for the administration of poison, are relevant facts. Motive, preparation and previous or subsequent conduct.––Any fact is relevant which shows or constitutes a motive or preparation for any fact in issue or relevant fact.

The fact that, at the time when the bond was alleged to be made, B required money for a particular

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The fact that, at the time when the bond was alleged to be made, B required money for a particular purpose, is relevant. (c) A is tried for the murder of B by poison. The facts that, not long before, the date of the alleged will, A made inquiry into matters to which the provisions of the alleged will relate; that he consulted vakils in reference to making the will, and that he caused drafts of other wills to be prepared, of which he did not approve, are relevant. (e) A is accused of a crime. The facts that, either before, or at the time of, or after the alleged crime, A provided evidence which would tend to give to the facts of the case an appearance favourable to himself, or that he destroyed or concealed evidence, or prevented the presence or procured the absence of persons who might have been witnesses, or suborned persons to give false evidence respecting it, are relevant. (f) The question is, whether A robbed B. The fact that A absconded, after receiving a letter, warning him that inquiry was being made for the criminal, and the contents of the letter, are relevant. (i) A is accused of a crime. The facts that, shortly after the alleged rape, she made a complaint relating to the crime, the circumstances under which, and the terms in which, the complaint was made, are relevant. The fact that, soon after the alleged robbery, he made a complaint relating to the offence, the circumstances under which, and the terms in which, the complaint was made, are relevant.

The fact that he said he had been robbed, without making any complaint, is not relevant, as conduct

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Section 9 — Facts necessary to explain or introduce relevant facts

Section 10 — Things said or done by conspirator in reference to common design

The fact that he said he had been robbed, without making any complaint, is not relevant, as conduct under this section, though it may be relevant as a dying declaration under section 32, clause (1), or as corroborative evidence under section 157. Facts necessary to explain or introduce relevant facts.––Facts necessary to explain or introduce a fact in issue or relevant fact, or which support or rebut an inference suggested by a fact in issue or relevant fact, or which establish the identity of any thing or person whose identity is relevant, or fix the time or place at which any fact in issue or relevant fact happened, or which show the relation of parties by whom any such fact was transacted, are relevant in so far as they are necessary for that purpose. The fact that, soon after the commission of the crime, A absconded from his house, is relevant under section 8, as conduct subsequent to and affected by facts in issue. The fact that, at the time when he left home, he had sudden and urgent business at the place to which he went, is relevant, as tending to explain the fact that he left home suddenly. C, on leaving A’s service, says to A –– “I am leaving you because B has made me a better offer.” This statement is a relevant fact as explanatory of C’s conduct, which is relevant as a fact in issue. (e) A, accused of theft, is seen to give the stolen property to B, who is seen to give it to A’s wife. Things said or done by conspirator in reference to common design.––Where there is reasonable ground to believe that two or more persons have conspired together to commit an offence or an actionable wrong, anything said, done or written by any one of such persons in reference to their common intention, after the time when such intention was first entertained by any one of them, is a relevant fact as against each of the persons believed to be so conspiring, as well for the purpose of proving the existence of the conspiracy as for the purpose of showing that any such person was a party to it.

11. When facts not otherwise relevant become relevant.––Facts not otherwise relevant are

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Section 11 — When facts not otherwise relevant become relevant

Section 12 — In suits for damages, facts tending to enable Court to determine amount are relevant

Section 13 — Facts relevant when right or custom is in question

The facts that B procured arms in Europe for the purpose of the conspiracy, C collected money in Calcutta for a like object, D persuaded persons to join the conspiracy in Bombay, E published writings advocating the object in view at Agra, and F transmitted from Delhi to G at Kabul the money which C had collected at Calcutta, and the contents of a letter written by H giving an account of the conspiracy, are each relevant, both to prove the existence of the conspiracy, and to prove A’s complicity in it, although he may have been ignorant of all of them, and although the persons by whom they were done were strangers to him, and although they may have taken place before he joined the conspiracy or after he left it. When facts not otherwise relevant become relevant.––Facts not otherwise relevant are relevant–– (1) if they are inconsistent with any fact in issue or relevant fact; (2) if by themselves or in connection with other facts they make the existence or non-existence of any fact in issue or relevant fact highly probable or improbable. The fact that, on that day, A was at Lahore is relevant. The fact that, near the time when the crime was committed, A was at a distance from the place where it was committed, which would render it highly improbable, though not impossible, that he committed it, is relevant. (b) The question is, whether A committed a crime. In suits for damages, facts tending to enable Court to determine amount are relevant. –– In suits in which damages are claimed, any fact which will enable the Court to determine the amount of damages which ought to be awarded, is relevant. Facts relevant when right or custom is in question.––Where the question is as to the existence of any right or custom, the following facts are relevant:–– (a) any transaction by which the right or custom in question was created, claimed, modified, recognised, asserted or denied, or which was inconsistent with its existence; (b) particular instances in which the right or custom was claimed, recognised or exercised, or in which its exercise was disputed, asserted or departed from.

14. Facts showing existence of state of mind, or of body of bodily feeling.––Facts showing the

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Section 14 — Facts showing existence of state of mind, or of body of bodily feeling

Illustrations The question is, whether A has a right to a fishery. A deed conferring the fishery on A’s ancestors, a mortgage of the fishery by A’s father, a subsequent grant of the fishery by A’s father, irreconcilable with the mortgage, particular instances in which A’s father exercised the right, or in which the exercise of the right was stopped by A’s neighbours, are relevant facts. Facts showing existence of state of mind, or of body of bodily feeling.––Facts showing the existence of any state of mind such as intention, knowledge, good faith, negligence, rashness, ill-will or good-will towards any particular person, or showing the existence of any state of body or bodily feeling, are relevant, when the existence of any such state of mind or body or bodily feeling is in issue or relevant. 1 [Explanation 1.––A fact relevant as showing the existence of a relevant state of mind must show that the state of mind exists, not generally, but in reference to the particular matter in question. The fact that A had accepted other bills drawn in the same manner before they could have been transmitted to him by the payee if the payee had been a real person, is relevant, as showing that A knew that the payee was a fictitious person. (e) A is accused of defaming B by publishing an imputation intended to harm the reputation of B. The fact of previous publications by A respecting B, showing ill-will on the part of A towards B is relevant, as proving A’s intention to harm B’s reputation by the particular publication in question.

The facts that there was no previous quarrel between A and B, and that A repeated the matter complained of as

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The facts that there was no previous quarrel between A and B, and that A repeated the matter complained of as he heard it, are relevant, as showing that A did not intend to harm the reputation of B. (f) A is sued by B for fraudulently representing to B that C was solvent, whereby B, being induced to trust C, who was insolvent, suffered loss. The fact that, at the time when A represented C to be solvent, C was supposed to be solvent by his neighbours and by persons dealing with him, is relevant, as showing that A made the representation in good faith. (g) A is sued by B for the price of work done by B, upon a house of which A is owner, by the order of C, a contractor. A’s defence is that B’s contract was with C. Expressions of their feeling towards each other shortly before or after the alleged cruelty are relevant facts. (l) The question is whether A’s death was caused by poison. Statements made by A during his illness as to his symptoms are relevant facts. (m) The question is, what was the state of A’s health at the time when an assurance on his life was effected. Statements made by A as to the state of his health at or near the time in question are relevant facts. (n) A sues B for negligence in providing him with a carriage for hire not reasonably fit for use, whereby A was injured.

The fact that A was in the habit of shooting at people with intent to murder them is irrelevant.

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Section 15 — Facts bearing on question whether act was accidental or intentional

Section 16 — Existence of course of business when relevant

The fact that A was in the habit of shooting at people with intent to murder them is irrelevant. (p) A is tried for a crime. The fact that he said something indicating an intention to commit that particular crime is relevant. The fact that he said something indicating a general disposition to commit crimes of that class is irrelevant. Facts bearing on question whether act was accidental or intentional.––When there is a 1 question whether an act was accidental or intentional, [or done with a particular knowledge or intention,] the fact that such act formed part of a series of similar occurrences, in each of which the person doing the act was concerned, is relevant. Illustrations (a) A is accused of burning down his house in order to obtain money for which it is insured. Existence of course of business when relevant.––When there is a question whether a particular act was done, the existence of any course of business, according to which it naturally would have been done, is a relevant fact.

ADMISSIONS

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Section 17 — Admission defined

Section 18 — Admission by party to proceeding or his agent

Section 19 — Admissions by persons whose position must be proved as against party to suit

Section 20 — Admissions by persons expressly referred to by party to suit

Section 21 — Proof of admissions against persons making them, and by or on their behalf

Admission defined.––An admission is a statement, [oral or documentary or contained in electronic form], which suggests any inference as to any fact in issue or relevant fact, and which is made by any of the persons, and under the circumstances, hereinafter mentioned. Admission by party to proceeding or his agent.––Statements made by a party to the proceeding, or by an agent to any such party, whom the Court regards, under the circumstances of the case, as expressly or impliedly authorised by him to make them, are admissions. by suitor in representative character.––Statements made by parties to suits suing or sued in a representative character, are not admissions, unless they were made while the party making them held that character. Statements made by –– (1) by party interested in subject-matter.––persons who have any proprietary or pecuniary interest in the subject-matter of the proceeding, and who make the statement in their character of persons so interested, or (2) by person from whom interest derived.––persons from whom the parties to the suit have derived their interest in the subject-matter of the suit, are admissions, if they are made during the continuance of the interest of the persons making the statements. Admissions by persons whose position must be proved as against party to suit. ––Statements made by persons whose position or liability, it is necessary to prove as against any party to the suit, are admissions, if such statements would be relevant as against such persons in relation to such position or liability in a suit brought by or against them, and if they are made whilst the person making them occupies such position or is subject to such liability. Admissions by persons expressly referred to by party to suit. ––Statements made by persons to whom a party to the suit has expressly referred for information in reference to a matter in dispute are admissions. Proof of admissions against persons making them, and by or on their behalf.––Admissions are relevant and may be proved as against the person who makes them, or his representative in interest; 1.

but they cannot be proved by or on behalf of the person who makes them or by his representative in

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Section 22 — When oral admissions as to contents of documents are relevant

but they cannot be proved by or on behalf of the person who makes them or by his representative in interest, except in the following cases:–– (1) An admission may be proved by or on behalf of the person making it, when it is of such a nature that, if the person making it were dead, it would be relevant as between third persons under section 32. (2) An admission may be proved by or on behalf of the person making it, when it consists of a statement of the existence of any state of mind or body, relevant or in issue, made at or about the time when such state of mind or body existed, and is accompanied by conduct rendering its falsehood improbable. (3) An admission may be proved by or on behalf of the person making it, if it is relevant otherwise than as an admission. A may prove a statement by B that the deed is genuine, and B may prove a statement by A that deed is forged; but A cannot prove a statement by himself that the deed is genuine, nor can B prove a statement by himself that the deed is forged. (b) A, the captain of a ship, is tried for casting her away. A produces a book kept by him in the ordinary course of his business showing observations alleged to have been taken by him from day to day, and indicating that the ship was not taken out of her proper course. A may prove these statements, because they would be admissible between third parties, if he were dead, under section 32, clause (2). (c) A is accused of a crime committed by him at Calcutta. The statement in the date of the letter is admissible, because, if A were dead, it would be admissible under section 32, clause (2). (d) A is accused of receiving stolen goods knowing them to be stolen. A may prove these statements, though they are admissions, because they are explanatory of conduct influenced by facts in issue. (e) A is accused of fraudulently having in his possession counterfeit coin which he knew to be counterfeit.

is entitled to give secondary evidence of the contents of such document under the rules hereinafter

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Section 22A — When oral admission as to contents of electronic records are relevant

Section 23 — Admissions in civil cases when relevant

Section 24 — Confession caused by inducement, threat or promise, when irrelevant in criminal proceeding

Section 25 — Confession to police-officer not to be proved

Section 26 — Confession by accused while in custody of police not to be proved against him

Section 27 — How much of information received from accused may be proved

Section 28 — Confession made after removal of impression caused by inducement, threat or promise, relevant

Section 29 — Confession otherwise relevant not to become irrelevant because of promise of secrecy, etc

is entitled to give secondary evidence of the contents of such document under the rules hereinafter contained, or unless the genuineness of a document produced is in question. When oral admission as to contents of electronic records are relevant.––Oral admissions as to the contents of electronic records are not relevant, unless the genuineness of the electronic record produced is in question.] 23. Admissions in civil cases when relevant.––In civil cases no admission is relevant, if it is made either upon an express condition that evidence of it is not to be given, or under circumstances from which the Court can infer that the parties agreed together that evidence of it should not be given. Explanation.––Nothing in this section shall be taken to exempt any barrister, pleader, attorney or vakil from giving evidence of any matter of which he may be compelled to give evidence under section 126. Confession caused by inducement, threat or promise, when irrelevant in criminal proceeding.––A confession made by an accused person is irrelevant in a criminal proceeding, if the 2 making of the confession appears to the Court to have been caused by any inducement, threat or promise having reference to the charge against the accused person, proceeding from a person in authority and sufficient, in the opinion of the Court, to give the accused person grounds which would appear to him reasonable for supposing that by making it he would gain any advantage or avoid any evil of a temporal nature in reference to the proceedings against him. Confession by accused while in custody of police not to be proved against him.––No confession made by any person whilst he is in the custody of a police-officer, unless it be made in the 4 immediate presence of a Magistrate , shall be proved as against such person.

he need not have answered, whatever may have been the form of those questions, or because he was not

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Section 30 — Consideration of proved confession affecting person making it and others jointly under trial for same offence

Section 31 — Admissions not conclusive proof, but may estop

Section 32 — Cases in which statement of relevant fact by person who is dead or cannot be found, etc., is relevant

he need not have answered, whatever may have been the form of those questions, or because he was not warned that he was not bound to make such confession, and that evidence of it might be given against him. Consideration of proved confession affecting person making it and others jointly under trial for same offence.––When more persons than one are being tried jointly for the same offence, and a confession made by one of such persons affecting himself and some other of such persons is proved, the Court may take into consideration such confession as against such other person as well as against the person who makes such confession. 1 [Explanation.––“Offence,” as used in this section, includes the abetment of, or attempt to commit, 2 the offence.] Illustrations (a) A and B are jointly tried for the murder of C. It is proved that A said––“B and I murdered C”. The Court may consider the effect of this confession as against B. (b) A is on his trial for the murder of C. Such statements are relevant whether the person who made them was or was not, at the time when they were made, under expectation of death, and whatever may be the nature of the proceeding in which the cause of his death comes into question. (2) or is made in course of business.––When the statement was made by such person in the ordinary course of business, and in particular when it consists of any entry or memorandum made by him in books kept in the ordinary course of business, or in the discharge of professional duty; or of an acknowledgement written or signed by him of the receipt of money, goods, securities or property of any kind; or of a document used in commerce written or signed by him; or of the date of a letter or other document usually dated, written or signed by him. (3) or against interest of maker.––When the statement is against the pecuniary or proprietary interest of the person making it, or when, if true, it would expose him or would have exposed him to a criminal prosecution or to a suit for damages.

of public or general interest, of the existence of which, if it existed, he would have been likely to be

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(4) or gives opinion as to public right or custom, or matters of general interest.––When the statement gives the opinion of any such person, as to the existence of any public right or custom or matter of public or general interest, of the existence of which, if it existed, he would have been likely to be aware, and when such statement was made before any controversy as to such right, custom or matter had arisen. (5) or relates to existence of relationship.––When the statement relates to the existence of any 1 1 relationship [by blood, marriage or adoption] between persons as to whose relationship [by blood, marriage or adoption] the person making the statement had special means of knowledge, and when the statement was made before the question in dispute was raised. (6) or is made in will or deed relating to family affairs.––When the statement relates to the 1 existence of any relationship [by blood, marriage or adoption] between persons deceased, and is made in any will or deed relating to the affairs of the family to which any such deceased person belonged, or in any family pedigree, or upon any tombstone, family portrait or other thing on which such statements are usually made, and when such statement was made before the question in dispute was raised. (7) or in document relating to transaction mentioned in section 13, clause (a).––When the statement is contained in any deed, will or other document which relates to any such transaction as is mentioned in section 13, clause (a). (8) or is made by several persons and expresses feelings relevant to matter in question.––When the statement was made by a number of persons, and expressed feelings or impressions on their part relevant to the matter in question. Illustrations (a) The question is, whether A was murdered by B; or A dies of injuries received in a transaction in the course of which she was ravished. The question is whether she was ravished by B; or The question is, whether A was killed by B under such circumstances that a suit would lie against B by A’s widow. Statements made by A as to the cause of his or her death, referring respectively to the murder, the rape and the actionable wrong under consideration, are relevant facts. (b) The question is as to the date of A’s birth. An entry in the diary of a deceased surgeon regularly kept in the course of business, stating that, on a given day he attended A’s mother and delivered her of a son, is a relevant fact. (c) The question is, whether A was in Calcutta on a given day. A letter written by a deceased member of a merchant’s firm by which she was chartered to their correspondents in London, to whom the cargo was consigned, stating that the ship sailed on a given day from Bombay harbour, is a relevant fact.

33. Relevancy of certain evidence for proving, in subsequent proceeding, the truth of facts

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Section 33 — Relevancy of certain evidence for proving, in subsequent proceeding, the truth of facts therein stated

(e) The question is, whether rent was paid to A for certain land. A letter from A’s deceased agent to A, saying that he had received the rent on A’s account and held it at A’s orders is a relevant fact. (f) The question is, whether A and B were legally married. The statement of a deceased clergyman that he married them under such circumstances that the celebration would be a crime, is relevant. (g) The question is, whether A, a person who cannot be found, wrote a letter on a certain day. A statement by A, a deceased headman of the village, that the road was public, is a relevant fact. (j) The question is, what was the price of grain on a certain day in a particular market. Relevancy of certain evidence for proving, in subsequent proceeding, the truth of facts therein stated.––Evidence given by a witness in a judicial proceeding, or before any person authorised by law to take it, is relevant for the purpose of proving, in a subsequent judicial proceeding, or in a later stage of the same judicial proceeding, the truth of the facts which it states, when the witness is dead or cannot be found, or is incapable of giving evidence, or is kept out of the way by the adverse party, or if his presence cannot be obtained without an amount of delay or expense which, under the circumstances of the case, the Court considers unreasonable: Provided –– that the proceeding was between the same parties or their representatives in interest; that the adverse party in the first proceeding had the right and opportunity to cross-examine; that the questions in issue were substantially the same in the first as in the second proceeding. Explanation.––A criminal trial or inquiry shall be deemed to be a proceeding between the prosecutor and the accused within the meaning of this section.

STATEMENTS MADE UNDER SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES

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Section 34 — Entries in books of account when relevant

Section 35 — Relevancy of entry in public record made in performance of duty

Section 36 — Relevancy of statements in maps, charts and plans

Section 37 — Relevancy of statement as to fact of public nature contained in certain Acts or notifications

Section 38 — Relevancy of statements as to any law contained in law-books

Section 39 — What evidence to be given when statement forms part of a conversation, document, electronic record, book or series of letters or papers

STATEMENTS MADE UNDER SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES 1 34. Entries in books of account when relevant.–– [Entries in the books of account, including those maintained in an electronic form], regularly kept in the course of business, are relevant whenever they refer to a matter into which the Court has to inquire, but such statements shall not alone be sufficient evidence to charge any person with liability. Relevancy of entry in public record made in performance of duty.–– An entry in any public or 2 other official book, register or [record or an electronic record], stating a fact in issue or relevant fact, and made by a public servant in the discharge of his official duty, or by any other person in performance of a 2 duty specially enjoined by the law of the country in which such book, register or [record or an electronic record], is kept, is itself a relevant fact. Relevancy of statements in maps, charts and plans.––Statements of facts in issue or relevant facts, made in published maps or charts generally offered for public sale, or in maps or plans made under 3 the authority of [the Central Government or any State Government], as to matters usually represented or stated in such maps, charts or plans, are themselves relevant facts. Relevancy of statement as to fact of public nature contained in certain Acts or notifications. ––When the Court has to form an opinion as to the existence of any fact of a public nature, 4 any statement of it, made in a recital contained in any Act of Parliament [of the United Kingdom] or in 5 6 any [Central Act, Provincial Act or [a State Act] or in a Government notification or notification by the Crown Representative appearing in the Official Gazette or in any printed paper purporting to be the London Gazette or the Government Gazette of any Dominion, colony or possession of his Majesty is a relevant fact]. Relevancy of statements as to any law contained in law-books.––When the Court has to form an opinion as to a law of any country, any statement of such law contained in a book purporting to be printed or published under the authority of the Government of such country and to contain any such law, and any report of a ruling of the Courts of such country contained in a book purporting to be a report of such rulings, is relevant.

forms part of a longer statement, or of a conversation or part of an isolated document, or is contained in a

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Section 40 — Previous judgments relevant to bar a second suit or trial

Section 41 — Relevancy of certain judgments in probate, etc., jurisdiction

Section 42 — Relevancy and effect of judgments, orders or decrees, other than those mentioned in section 41

Section 43 — Judgments, etc., other than those mentioned in sections 40, 41 and 42, when relevant

forms part of a longer statement, or of a conversation or part of an isolated document, or is contained in a document which forms part of a book, or is contained in part of electronic record or of a connected series of letters or papers, evidence shall be given of so much and no more of the statement, conversation, document, electronic record, book or series of letters or papers as the Court considers necessary in that particular case to the full understanding of the nature and effect of the statement, and of the circumstances under which it was made.] JUDGMENTS OF COURTS OF JUSTICE WHEN RELEVANT 40. Previous judgments relevant to bar a second suit or trial.––The existence of any judgment, order or decree which by law prevents any Court from taking cognizance of a suit or holding a trial, is a relevant fact when the question is whether such Court ought to take cognizance of such suit or to hold such trial. Relevancy of certain judgments in probate, etc., jurisdiction.––A final judgment, order or decree of a competent Court, in the exercise of probate, matrimonial, admiralty or insolvency jurisdiction, which confers upon or takes away from any person any legal character, or which declares any person to be entitled to any such character, or to be entitled to any specific thing, not as against any specified person but absolutely, is relevant when the existence of any such legal character, or the title of any such person to any such thing, is relevant. Such judgment, order or decree is conclusive proof –– that any legal character which it confers accrued at the time when such judgment, order or decree came into operation; that any legal character, to which it declares any such person to be entitled, accrued to that person at 1 the time when such judgment [order or decree] declares it to have accrued to that person; that any legal character which it takes away from any such person ceased at the time from which such 1 judgment, [order or decree] declared that it had ceased or should cease; and that anything to which it declares any person to be so entitled was the property of that person at 1 the time from which such judgment, [order or decree] declares that it had been or should be his property. Relevancy and effect of judgments, orders or decrees, other than those mentioned in section 41. –– Judgments, orders or decrees other than those mentioned in section 41 are relevant if they relate to matters of a public nature relevant to the enquiry; but such judgments, orders or decrees are not conclusive proof of that which they state. Illustration A sues B for trespass on his land.

Illustrations

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Section 44 — Fraud or collusion in obtaining judgment, or incompetency of Court, may be proved

Section 45 — Opinions of experts

Illustrations (a) A and B separately sue C for a libel which reflects upon each of them. C in each case says that the matter alleged to be libellous is true, and the circumstances are such that it is probably true in each case, or in neither. A obtains a decree against C for damages on the ground that C failed to make out his justification. The fact is irrelevant as between B and C. (b) A prosecutes B for adultery with C, A’s wife. B denies that C is A’s wife, but the Court convicts B of adultery. Illustrations (a) The question is, whether the death of A was caused by poison.

(b) The question is, whether A, at the time of doing a certain act, was, by reason of unsoundness of

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Section 45A — Opinion of Examiner of Electronic Evidence

Section 46 — Facts bearing upon opinions of experts

Section 47 — Opinion as to hand-writing, when relevant

(b) The question is, whether A, at the time of doing a certain act, was, by reason of unsoundness of mind, incapable of knowing the nature of the act, or that he was doing what was either wrong or contrary to law. The opinions of experts upon the question whether the symptoms exhibited by A commonly show unsoundness of mind, and whether such unsoundness of mind usually renders persons incapable of knowing the nature of the acts which they do, or of knowing that what they do is either wrong or contrary to law, are relevant. (c) The question is, whether a certain document was written by A. The opinions of experts on the question whether the two documents were written by the same person or by different persons, are relevant. Illustrations (a) The question is, whether A was poisoned by a certain poison. The fact that other persons, who were poisoned by that poison, exhibited certain symptoms which experts affirm or deny to be the symptoms of that poison, is relevant. (b) The question is, whether an obstruction to a harbour is caused by a certain sea-wall. The fact that other harbours similarly situated in other respects, but where there were no such sea-walls, began to be obstructed at about the same time, is relevant.

Illustration

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Section 47A — Opinion as to digital signature, when relevant

Section 48 — Opinion as to existence of right or custom, when relevant

Section 49 — Opinion as to usages, tenets, etc., when relevant

Section 50 — Opinion on relationship, when relevant

Illustration The question is, whether a given letter is in the hand-writing of A, a merchant in London. B is a merchant in Calcutta, who has written letters addressed to A and received letters purporting to be written by him. C, is B’s clerk whose duty it was to examine and file B’s correspondence. D is B’s broker, to whom B habitually submitted the letters purporting to be written by A for the purpose of advising with him thereon. The opinions of B, C and D on the question whether the letter is in the handwriting of A are relevant, though neither B, C nor D ever saw A write. Illustration The right of the villagers of a particular village to use the water of a particular well is a general right within the meaning of this section.

(b) The question is, whether A was the legitimate son of B. The fact that A was always treated as

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Section 51 — Grounds of opinion, when relevant

Section 52 — In civil cases character to prove conduct imputed, irrelevant

Section 53 — In criminal cases previous good character relevant

Section 53A — Evidence of character or previous sexual experience not relevant in certain cases

Section 54 — Previous bad character not relevant, except in reply

Section 55 — Character as affecting damages

Section 56 — Fact judicially noticeable need not be proved

Section 57 — Facts of which Court must take judicial notice

(b) The question is, whether A was the legitimate son of B. The fact that A was always treated as such by members of the family, is relevant. In civil cases character to prove conduct imputed, irrelevant.––In civil cases, the fact that the character of any person concerned is such as to render probable or improbable any conduct imputed to him, is irrelevant, except in so far as such character appears from facts otherwise relevant. In criminal cases previous good character relevant.––In criminal proceedings, the fact that the person accused is of a good character, is relevant. Evidence of character or previous sexual experience not relevant in certain cases.–– In a prosecution for an offence under section 354, section 354A, section 354B, section 354C, section 354D, 2 section 376, [section 376A, section 376AB, section 376B, section 376C, section 376D, section 376DA, section 376DB] or section 376E of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) or for attempt to commit any such offence, where the question of consent is in issue, evidence of the character of the victim or of such person’s previous sexual experience with any person shall not be relevant on the issue of such consent or the quality of consent.] 3 [54. Previous bad character not relevant, except in reply.–– In criminal proceedings, the fact that the accused person has a bad character, is irrelevant, unless evidence has been given that he has a good character, in which case it becomes relevant.

(2) All public Acts passed or hereafter to be passed by Parliament [of the United Kingdom], and

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1 (2) All public Acts passed or hereafter to be passed by Parliament [of the United Kingdom], and 1 all local and personal Acts directed by Parliament [of the United Kingdom] to be judicially noticed; 2 3 (3) Articles of War for [the Indian] Army [Navy or Air Force] 4 [(4) The course of proceeding of Parliament of the United Kingdom, of the Constituent Assembly of India, of Parliament and of the legislatures established under any laws for the time being in force in a Province or in the States] (5) The accession and the sign manual of the Sovereign for the time being of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; 5 6 (6) All seals of which English Courts take judicial notice: the seals of all the [Courts in [India]] 6 7 and of all Courts out of [India] established by the authority of [the Central Government or the Crown Representative]; the seals of Courts of Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction and of Notaries 8 Public, and all seals which any person is authorised to use by [the Constitution or an Act of 6 Parliament of the United Kingdom or an] Act or Regulation having the force of law in [India]; (7) The accession to office, names, titles, functions, and signatures of the persons filling for the time being any public office in any State, if the fact of their appointment to such office is notified in 9 [any Official Gazette]; 10 (8) The existence, title and national flag of every State or Sovereign recognised by [the Government of India]; (9) The divisions of time, the geographical divisions of the world, and public festivals, fasts and holidays notified in the Official Gazette; 10 (10) The territories under the dominion of [the Government of India]; 10 (11) The commencement, continuance and termination of hostilities between [the Government of India] and any other State or body of persons; (12) The names of the members and officers of the Court, and of their deputies and subordinate officers and assistants, and also of all officers acting in execution of its process, and of all advocates, attorneys, proctors, vakils, pleaders and other persons authorised by law to appear or act before it; 11 (13) The rule of the road [on land or at sea]. In all these cases and also on all matters of public history, literature, science or art, the Court may resort for its aid to appropriate books or documents of reference. If the Court is called upon by any person to take judicial notice of any fact, it may refuse to do so unless and until such person produces any such book or document as it may consider necessary to enable it to do so. 2 and the First Schedule, for “or Navy”. 1948, for “Courts of British India”. 1950, for “any Act of Parliament or other”.

58. Facts admitted need not be proved.––No fact need be proved in any proceeding which the

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Section 59 — Proof of facts by oral evidence

Section 61 — Proof of contents of documents

Section 62 — Primary evidence

Facts admitted need not be proved.––No fact need be proved in any proceeding which the parties thereto or their agents agree to admit at the hearing, or which, before the hearing, they agree to admit by any writing under their hands, or which by any rule of pleading in force at the time they are deemed to have admitted by their pleadings: Provided that the Court may, in its discretion, require the facts admitted to be proved otherwise than by such admissions. CHAPTER IV.–– OF ORAL EVIDENCE 1 59. Proof of facts by oral evidence. –– All facts, except the [contents of documents or electronic records], may be proved by oral evidence. Oral evidence must be direct. –– Oral evidence must, in all cases whatever, be direct; that is to say –– if it refers to a fact which could be seen, it must be the evidence of a witness who says he saw it; if it refers to a fact which could be heard, it must be the evidence of a witness who says he heard it; if it refers to a fact which could be perceived by any other sense or in any other manner, it must be the evidence of a witness who says he perceived it by that sense or in that manner; if it refers to an opinion or to the grounds on which that opinion is held, it must be the evidence of the person who holds that opinion on those grounds: Provided that the opinions of experts expressed in any treatise commonly offered for sale, and the grounds on which such opinions are held, may be proved by the production of such treatises if the author is dead or cannot be found, or has become incapable of giving evidence, or cannot be called as a witness without an amount of delay or expense which the Court regards as unreasonable: Provided also that, if oral evidence refers to the existence or condition of any material thing other than a document, the Court may, if it thinks fit, require the production of such material thing for its inspection. CHAPTER V. –– OF DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 61. Proof of contents of documents. –– The contents of documents may be proved either by primary or by secondary evidence.

Illustration

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Section 63 — Secondary evidence

Section 64 — Proof of documents by primary evidence

Section 65 — Cases in which secondary evidence relating to documents may be given

Illustration A person is shown to have been in possession of a number of placards, all printed at one time from one original. Any one of the placards is primary evidence of the contents of any other, but no one of them is primary evidence of the contents of the original. Secondary evidence. –– Secondary evidence means and includes –– (1) certified copies given under the provisions hereinafter contained; (2) copies made from the original by mechanical processes which in themselves insure the accuracy of the copy, and copies compared with such copies; (3) copies made from or compared with the original; (4) counterparts of documents as against the parties who did not execute them; (5) oral accounts of the contents of a document given by some person who has himself seen it. Illustrations (a) A photograph of an original is secondary evidence of its contents, though the two have not been compared, if it is proved that the thing photographed was the original. (b) A copy compared with a copy of a letter made by a copying machine is secondary evidence of the contents of the letter, if it is shown that the copy made by the copying machine was made from the original. (c) A copy transcribed from a copy, but afterwards compared with the original, is secondary evidence; but the copy not so compared is not secondary evidence of the original, although the copy from which it was transcribed was compared with the original. (d) Neither an oral account of a copy compared with the original, nor an oral account of a photograph or machine-copy of the original, is secondary evidence of the original. Proof of documents by primary evidence.––Documents must be proved by primary evidence except in the cases hereinafter mentioned. Cases in which secondary evidence relating to documents may be given.––Secondary evidence may be given of the existence, condition, or contents of a document in the following cases: –– (a) when the original is shown or appears to be in the possession or power –– of the person against whom the document is sought to be proved, or of any person out of reach of, or not subject to, the process of the Court, or of any person legally bound to produce it, and when, after the notice mentioned in section 66, such person does not produce it; (b) when the existence, condition or contents of the original have been proved to be admitted in writing by the person against whom it is proved or by his representative in interest; (c) when the original has been destroyed or lost, or when the party offering evidence of its contents cannot, for any other reason not arising from his own default or neglect, produce it in reasonable time; (d) when the original is of such a nature as not to be easily movable; (e) when the original is a public document within the meaning of section 74;

(f) when the original is a document of which a certified copy is permitted by this Act, or by any

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Section 65A — Special provisions as to evidence relating to electronic record

Section 65B — Admissibility of electronic records

(f) when the original is a document of which a certified copy is permitted by this Act, or by any 1 other law in force in [India] to be given in evidence; (g) when the originals consist of numerous accounts or other documents which cannot conveniently be examined in Court, and the fact to be proved is the general result of the whole collection. In cases (a), (c) and (d), any secondary evidence of the contents of the document is admissible. In case (b), the written admission is admissible. In case (e) or (f), a certified copy of the document, but no other kind of secondary evidence, is admissible. In case (g), evidence may be given as to the general result of the documents by any person who has examined them, and who is skilled in the examination of such documents. Admissibility of electronic records. –– (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, any information contained in an electronic record which is printed on a paper, stored, recorded or copied in optical or magnetic media produced by a computer (hereinafter referred to as the computer output) shall be deemed to be also a document, if the conditions mentioned in this section are satisfied in relation to the information and computer in question and shall be admissible in any proceedings, without further proof or production of the original, as evidence or any contents of the original or of any fact stated therein of which direct evidence would be admissible. (2) The conditions referred to in sub-section (1) in respect of a computer output shall be the following, namely: –– (a) the computer output containing the information was produced by the computer during the period over which the computer was used regularly to store or process information for the purposes of any activities regularly carried on over that period by the person having lawful control over the use of the computer; (b) during the said period, information of the kind contained in the electronic record or of the kind from which the information so contained is derived was regularly fed into the computer in the ordinary course of the said activities; (c) throughout the material part of the said period, the computer was operating properly or, if not, then in respect of any period in which it was not operating properly or was out of operation during that part of the period, was not such as to affect the electronic record or the accuracy of its contents; and (d) the information contained in the electronic record reproduces or is derived from such information fed into the computer in the ordinary course of the said activities. (3) Where over any period, the function of storing or processing information for the purposes of any activities regularly carried on over that period as mentioned in clause (a) of sub-section (2) was regularly performed by computers, whether–– (a) by a combination of computers operating over that period; or 1.

(b) by different computers operating in succession over that period; or

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Section 66 — Rules as to notice to produce

(b) by different computers operating in succession over that period; or (c) by different combinations of computers operating in succession over that period; or (d) in any other manner involving the successive operation over that period, in whatever order, of one or more computers and one or more combinations of computers, all the computers used for that purpose during that period shall be treated for the purposes of this section as constituting a single computer; and references in this section to a computer shall be construed accordingly. (4) In any proceedings where it is desired to give a statement in evidence by virtue of this section, a certificate doing any of the following things, that is to say, –– (a) identifying the electronic record containing the statement and describing the manner in which it was produced; (b) giving such particulars of any device involved in the production of that electronic record as may be appropriate for the purpose of showing that the electronic record was produced by a computer; (c) dealing with any of the matters to which the conditions mentioned in sub-section (2) relate, and purporting to be signed by a person occupying a responsible official position in relation to the operation of the relevant device or the management of the relevant activities (whichever is appropriate) shall be evidence of any matter stated in the certificate; and for the purposes of this sub- section it shall be sufficient for a matter to be stated to the best of the knowledge and belief of the person stating it. (5) For the purposes of this section, –– (a) information shall be taken to be supplied to a computer if it is supplied thereto in any appropriate form and whether it is so supplied directly or (with or without human intervention) by means of any appropriate equipment; (b) whether in the course of activities carried on by any official, information is supplied with a view to its being stored or processed for the purposes of those activities by a computer operated otherwise than in the course of those activities, that information, if duly supplied to that computer, shall be taken to be supplied to it in the course of those activities; (c) a computer output shall be taken to have been produced by a computer whether it was produced by it directly or (with or without human intervention) by means of any appropriate equipment. Explanation.––For the purposes of this section any reference to information being derived from other information shall be a reference to its being derived therefrom by calculation, comparison or any other process.] 66. Rules as to notice to produce.— Secondary evidence of the contents of the documents referred to in section 65, clause (a), shall not be given unless the party proposing to give such secondary evidence 1 has previously given to the party in whose possession or power the document is, [or to his attorney or 1.

pleader,] such notice to produce it as is prescribed by law; and if no notice is prescribed by law, then such

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Section 67 — Proof of signature and handwriting of person alleged to have signed or written document produced

Section 67A — Proof as to [electronic signature]

Section 68 — Proof of execution of document required by law to be attested

Section 69 — Proof where no attesting witness found

Section 70 — Admission of execution by party to attested document

Section 71 — Proof when attesting witness denies the execution

Section 72 — Proof of document not required by law to be attested

pleader,] such notice to produce it as is prescribed by law; and if no notice is prescribed by law, then such notice as the Court considers reasonable under the circumstances of the case: Provided that such notice shall not be required in order to render secondary evidence admissible in any of the following cases, or in any other case in which the Court thinks fit to dispense with it: –– (1) when the document to be proved is itself a notice; (2) when, from the nature of the case, the adverse party must know that he will be required to produce it; (3) when it appears or is proved that the adverse party has obtained possession of the original by fraud or force; (4) when the adverse party or his agent has the original in Court; (5) when the adverse party or his agent has admitted the loss of the document; (6) when the person in possession of the document is out of reach of, or not subject to, the process of the Court. Proof of signature and handwriting of person alleged to have signed or written document produced. –– If a document is alleged to be signed or to have been written wholly or in part by any person, the signature or the handwriting of so much of the document as is alleged to be in that person’s handwriting must be proved to be in his handwriting. Proof as to [electronic signature].––Except in the case of a secure [electronic signature], if the 2 [electronic signature] of any subscriber is alleged to have been affixed to an electronic record the fact that 2 2 such [electronic signature] is the [electronic signature] of the subscriber must be proved.] 68. Proof of execution of document required by law to be attested.––If a document is required by law to be attested, it shall not be used as evidence until one attesting witness at least has been called for the purpose of proving its execution, if there be an attesting witness alive, and subject to the process of the Court and capable of giving evidence: 3 [Provided that it shall not be necessary to call an attesting witness in proof of the execution of any document, not being a will, which has been registered in accordance with the provisions of the Indian Registration Act, 1908 (16 of 1908), unless its execution by the person by whom it purports to have been executed is specifically denied.] 69. Proof where no attesting witness found.––If no such attesting witness can be found, or if the document purports to have been executed in the United Kingdom, it must be proved that the attestation of one attesting witness at least is in his handwriting, and that the signature of the person executing the document is in the hand writing of that person. Admission of execution by party to attested document.––The admission of a party to an attested document of its execution by himself shall be sufficient proof of its execution as against him, though it be a document required by law to be attested.

73. Comparison of signature, writing or seal with others admitted or proved.––In order to

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Section 73 — Comparison of signature, writing or seal with others admitted or proved

Section 73A — Proof as to verification of digital signature

Section 74 — Public documents

Section 75 — Private documents.––All other documents are private. 76. Certified copies of public documents

Section 77 — Proof of documents by production of certified copies

Comparison of signature, writing or seal with others admitted or proved.––In order to ascertain whether a signature, writing, or seal is that of the person by whom it purports to have been written or made, any signature, writing, or seal admitted or proved to the satisfaction of the Court to have been written or made by that person may be compared with the one which is to be proved, although that signature, writing, or seal has not been produced or proved for any other purpose. The Court may direct any person present in Court to write any words or figures for the purpose of enabling the Court to compare the words or figures so written with any words or figures alleged to have been written by such person. 1 [This section applies also, with any necessary modifications, to finger-impressions.] 2 [73A. Proof as to verification of digital signature.––In order to ascertain whether a digital signature is that of the person by whom it purports to have been affixed, the Court may direct –– (a) that person or the Controller or the Certifying Authority to produce the Digital Signature Certificate; (b) any other person to apply the public key listed in the Digital Signature Certificate and verify the digital signature purported to have been affixed by that person. Explanation. –– For the purposes of this section, “Controller” means the Controller appointed under sub-section (1) of section 17 of the Information Technology Act, 2000 (21 of 2000).] PUBLIC DOCUMENTS 74. Certified copies of public documents.––Every public officer having the custody of a public document, which any person has a right to inspect, shall give that person on demand a copy of it on payment of the legal fees there for, together with a certificate written at the foot of such copy that it is a true copy of such document or part thereof, as the case may be, and such certificate shall be dated and subscribed by such officer with his name and his official title, and shall be sealed, whenever such officer is authorized by law to make use of a seal; and such copies so certified shall be called certified copies.

78. Proof of other official documents.–– The following public documents may be proved as

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Section 78 — Proof of other official documents

Section 79 — Presumption as to genuineness of certified copies

Proof of other official documents.–– The following public documents may be proved as follows:–– 1 2 (1) Acts, orders or notifications of [the Central Government] in any of its departments, [or of the Crown Representative] or of any State Government or any department of any State Government, –– by the records of the departments, certified by the head of those departments respectively, 3 or by any document purporting to be printed by order of any such Government [or, as the case may be, of the Crown Representative]; (2) the proceedings of the Legislatures,–– by the journals of those bodies respectively, or by published Acts or abstracts, or by copies 3 purporting to be printed [by order of the Government concerned]; 4 (3) proclamations, orders or regulations issued by [Her Majesty] or by the Privy Council, or by 4 any department of [Her Majesty’s Government,–– by copies or extracts contained in the London Gazette, or purporting to be printed by the Queen’s Printer; (4) the Acts of the Executive or the proceedings of the Legislature of a foreign country, –– by journals published by their authority, or commonly received in that country as such, or by a copy certified under the seal of the country or sovereign, or by a recognition thereof in some 5 [Central Act]: 6 (5) the proceedings of a municipal body in [a State], –– by a copy of such proceedings, certified by the legal keeper thereof, or by a printed book purporting to be published by the authority of such body; (6) public documents of any other class in a foreign country, –– by the original, or by a copy certified by the legal keeper thereof, with a certificate under the 7 seal of a Notary Public, or of [an Indian Consul] or diplomatic agent, that the copy is duly certified by the officer having the legal custody of the original, and upon proof of the character of the document according to the law of the foreign country. Presumption as to genuineness of certified copies. –– The Court shall presume [to be genuine] every document purporting to be a certificate, certified copy or other document, which is by Law declared to be admissible as evidence of any particular fact, and which purports to be duly certified by any officer 9 10 [of the Central Government or of a State Government, or by any officer [in the State of Jammu and Kashmir] who is duly authorized thereto by the Central Government]: 1. 1937, for “the Executive Government of British India”. Subs. ibid., for “by order of Government.”. The words “her Majesty” shall stand unmodified, vide the A.O. 1937, for “public Act of the Governor General of India in Council”.

Provided that such document is substantially in the form and purports to be executed in the manner

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Section 80 — Presumption as to documents produced as record of evidence

Section 81 — Presumption as to Gazettes, newspapers, private Acts of Parliament and other documents

Section 81A — Presumption as to Gazettes in electronic forms

Section 82 — Presumption as to document admissible in England without proof of seal or signature

Section 83 — Presumption as to maps or plans made by authority of Government

Section 84 — Presumption as to collections of laws and reports of decisions

Provided that such document is substantially in the form and purports to be executed in the manner directed by law in that behalf. The Court shall also presume that any officer by whom any such document purports to be signed or certified, held, when he signed it, the official character which he claims in such paper. Presumption as to documents produced as record of evidence.––Whenever any document is produced before any Court, purporting to be a record or memorandum of the evidence, or of any part of the evidence, given by a witness in a judicial proceeding or before any officer authorized by law to take such evidence or to be a statement or confession by any prisoner or accused person, taken in accordance with law, and purporting to be signed by any Judge or Magistrate, or by any such officer as aforesaid, the Court shall presume–– that the document is genuine; that any statements as to the circumstances under which it was taken, purporting to be made by the person signing it, are true, and that such evidence, statement or confession was duly taken. Presumption as to Gazettes, newspapers, private Acts of Parliament and other documents. –– The Court shall presume the genuineness of every document purporting to be the London 1 Gazette or [any Official Gazette, or the Government Gazette] of any colony, dependency or possession 2 of the British Crown, or to be a newspaper or journal, or to be a copy of a private Act of Parliament [of the United Kingdom] printed by the Queen’s Printer, and of every document purporting to be a document directed by any law to be kept by any person, if such document is kept substantially in the form required by law and is produced from proper custody. Presumption as to Gazettes in electronic forms.––The Court shall presume the genuineness of every electronic record purporting to be the Official Gazette, or purporting to be electronic record directed by any law to be kept by any person, if such electronic record is kept substantially in the form required by law and is produced from proper custody.] 82. Presumption as to document admissible in England without proof of seal or signature. –– When any document is produced before any Court, purporting to be a document which, by the law in force for the time being in England or Ireland, would be admissible in proof of any particular in any Court of Justice in England or Ireland, without proof of the seal or stamp or signature authenticating it, or of the judicial or official character claimed by the person by whom it purports to be signed, the Court shall presume that such seal, stamp or signature is genuine, and that the person signing it held, at the time when he signed it, the judicial or official character which he claims, and the document shall be admissible for the same purpose for which it would be admissible in England or Ireland.

85. Presumption as to powers-of-attorney. –– The Court shall presume that every document

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Section 85 — Presumption as to powers-of-attorney

Section 85A — Presumption as to electronic agreements

Section 85B — Presumption as to electronic records and [electronic signatures]

Section 85C — Presumption as to [Electronic Signature Certificates]

Presumption as to powers-of-attorney. –– The Court shall presume that every document purporting to be a power-of-attorney, and to have been executed before, and authenticated by, a Notary 1 2 Public, or any Court, Judge, Magistrate, [Indian] Consul or Vice-Consul, or representative *** of the 3 [Central Government], was so executed and authenticated. Presumption as to electronic agreements. –– The Court shall presume that every electronic 5 record purporting to be an agreement containing the [electronic signature] of the parties was so 5 concluded by affixing the [electronic signature] of the parties. Presumption as to electronic records and [electronic signatures]. –– (1) In any proceedings involving a secure electronic record, the Court shall presume unless contrary is proved, that the secure electronic record has not been altered since the specific point of time to which the secure status relates. (2) In any proceedings, involving secure digital signature, the Court shall presume unless the contrary is proved that— 5 (a) the secure [electronic signature] is affixed by subscriber with the intention of signing or approving the electronic record; 5 (b) except in the case of a secure electronic record or a secure [electronic signature], nothing in this section shall cerate any presumption, relating to authenticity and integrity of the electronic record 5 or any [electronic signature]. Presumption as to [Electronic Signature Certificates]. –– The Court shall presume, unless 6 contrary is proved, that the information listed in a [Electronic Signature Certificate] is correct, except for information specified as subscriber information which has not been verified, if the certificate was accepted by the subscriber.] 86. Presumption as to certified copies of foreign judicial records. The Court may presume that 7 8 any document purporting to be a certified copy of any judicial record of [ * * * any country not forming part of India or] of Her Majesty’s Dominions is genuine and accurate, if the document purports to be 9 3 10 certified in any manner which is certified by any representative of * * * the [Central Government] [in 11 12 or for] [such country] to be the manner commonly in use in [that country] for the certification of copies of judicial records.

Clauses Act, 1897 (10 of 1897), shall, for the purposes of this section, be deemed to be a representative of

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Section 87 — Presumption as to books, maps and charts

Section 88 — Presumption as to telegraphic messages

Section 88A — Presumption as to electronic messages

Section 89 — Presumption as to due execution, etc., of documents not produced

Section 90 — Presumption as to documents thirty years old

Clauses Act, 1897 (10 of 1897), shall, for the purposes of this section, be deemed to be a representative of 1 2 the [Central Government] [in and for the country] comprising that territory or place]. Presumption as to books, maps and charts. –– The Court may presume that any book to which it may refer for information on matters of public or general interest, and that any published map or chart, the statements of which are relevant facts, and which is produced for its inspection, was written and published by the person, and at the time and place, by whom or at which it purports to have been written or published. Presumption as to telegraphic messages. –– The Court may presume that a message, forwarded from a telegraph office to the person to whom such message purports to be addressed, corresponds with a message delivered for transmission at the office from which the message purports to be sent; but the Court shall not make any presumption as to the person by whom such message was delivered for transmission. Presumption as to electronic messages. –– The Court may presume that an electronic message, forwarded by the originator through an electronic mail server to the addressee to whom the message purports to be addressed corresponds with the message as fed into his computer for transmission; but the Court shall not make any presumption as to the person by whom such message was sent. Explanation. –– For the purposes of this section, the expressions “addressee” and “originator” shall have the same meanings respectively assigned to them in clauses (b) and (za) of sub-section (1) of section 2 of the Information Technology Act, 2000 (21 of 2000).] 89. Presumption as to due execution, etc., of documents not produced. ––The Court shall presume that every document, called for and not produced after notice to produce, was attested, stamped and executed in the manner required by law.

(c) A, a connection of B, produces deeds relating to lands in B’s possession, which were deposited

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Section 91 — Evidence of terms of contracts, grants and other dispositions of property reduced to form of document

(c) A, a connection of B, produces deeds relating to lands in B’s possession, which were deposited with him by B for safe custody. Presumption as to electronic records five years old. –– Where any electronic record, purporting or proved to be five years old, is produced from any custody which the Court in the particular 2 case considers proper, the Court may presume that the [electronic signature] which purports to be the 2 [electronic signature] of any particular person was so affixed by him or any person authorised by him in this behalf. Explanation. –– Electronic records are said to be in proper custody if they are in the place in which, and under the care of the person with whom, they naturally be; but no custody is improper if it is proved to have had a legitimate origin, or the circumstances of the particular case are such as to render such an origin probable. Evidence of terms of contracts, grants and other dispositions of property reduced to form of document. –– When the terms of a contract, or of a grant, or of any other disposition of property, have been reduced to the form of a document, and in all cases in which any matter is required by law to be reduced to the form of a document, no evidence shall be given in proof of the terms of such contract, grant or other disposition of property, or of such matter, except the document itself, or secondary evidence of its contents in cases in which secondary evidence is admissible under the provisions hereinbefore contained. Exception 1.––When a public officer is required by law to be appointed in writing, and when it is shown that any particular person has acted as such officer, the writing by which he is appointed need not be proved. Explanation 1.––This section applies equally to cases in which the contracts, grants or dispositions of property referred to are contained in one document, and to cases in which they are contained in more documents than one.

Oral evidence is offered that no payment was made for the other indigo. The evidence is

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Section 92 — Exclusion of evidence of oral agreement

Oral evidence is offered that no payment was made for the other indigo. The evidence is admissible. (e) A gives B a receipt for money paid by B. Oral evidence is offered of the payment. Exclusion of evidence of oral agreement. –– When the terms of any such contract, grant or other disposition of property, or any matter required by law to be reduced to the form of a document, have been proved according to the last section, no evidence of any oral agreement or statement shall be admitted, as between the parties to any such instrument or their representatives in interest, for the purpose of contradicting, varying, adding to, or subtracting from, its terms: Proviso (1). –– Any fact may be proved which would invalidate any document, or which would entitle any person to any decree or order relating thereto; such as fraud, intimidation, illegality, want of 1 due execution, want of capacity in any contracting party, [want or failure] of consideration, or mistake in fact or law. Proviso (2). ––The existence of any separate oral agreement as to any matter on which a document is silent, and which is not inconsistent with its terms, may be proved. The fact that, at the same time, an oral agreement was made that the money should not be paid till the thirty-first March, cannot be proved. (c) An estate called “the Rampore tea estate” is sold by a deed which contains a map of the property sold.

(d) A enters into a written contract with B to work certain mines, the property of B, upon certain

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Section 93 — Exclusion of evidence to explain or amend ambiguous document

Section 94 — Exclusion of evidence against application of document to existing facts

Section 95 — Evidence as to document unmeaning reference to existing facts

(d) A enters into a written contract with B to work certain mines, the property of B, upon certain terms. This fact may be proved. (e) A institutes a suit against B for the specific performance of a contract, and also prays that the contract may be reformed as to one of its provisions, as that provision was inserted in it by mistake. A may prove that such a mistake was made as would by law entitle him to have the contract reformed. (f) A orders goods of B by a letter in which nothing is said as to the time of payment, and accepts the goods on delivery. B may prove the verbal warranty. (h) A hires lodgings of B, and gives B a card on which is written ––“Rooms, Rs. In a suit for the amount, A may prove this. (j) A and B make a contract in writing to take effect upon the happening of a certain contingency. The writing is left with B, who sues A upon it.

96. Evidence as to application of language which can apply to one only of several

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Section 96 — Evidence as to application of language which can apply to one only of several persons

Section 97 — Evidence as to application of language to one of two sets of facts, to neither of which the whole correctly applies

Section 98 — Evidence as to meaning of illegible characters, etc

Section 99 — Who may give evidence of agreement varying terms of document

Section 100 — Saving of provisions of Indian Succession Act relating to wills

Section 101 — Burden of proof

Evidence as to application of language which can apply to one only of several persons. –– When the facts are such that the language used might have been meant to apply to any one, and could not have been meant to apply to more than one, of several persons or things, evidence may be given of facts which show which of those persons or things it was intended to apply to. Evidence may be give of facts which show which of them was meant. (b) A agrees to accompany B to Haidarabad. Evidence may be given of facts showing whether Haidarabad in the Dekkhan or Haiderabad in Sind was meant. Evidence as to application of language to one of two sets of facts, to neither of which the whole correctly applies. –– When the language used applies partly to one set of existing facts, and partly to another set of existing facts, but the whole of it does not apply correctly to either, evidence may be given to show to which of the two it was meant to apply. Evidence may be given of facts showing which he meant to sell. Evidence may be given to show which he meant to sell.

(b) A desires a Court to give judgment that he is entitled to certain land in the possession of B, by

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Section 102 — On whom burden of proof lies

Section 103 — Burden of proof as to particular fact

Section 104 — Burden of proving fact to be proved to make evidence admissible

Section 105 — Burden of proving that case of accused comes within exceptions

(b) A desires a Court to give judgment that he is entitled to certain land in the possession of B, by reason of facts which he asserts, and which B denies, to be true. Illustrations (a) A sues B for land of which B is in possession, and which, as A asserts, was left to A by the will of C, B’s father. If no evidence were given on either side, B would be entitled to retain his possession. Burden of proof as to particular fact. ––The burden of proof as to any particular fact lies on that person who wishes the Court to believe in its existence, unless it is provided by any law that the proof of that fact shall lie on any particular person. Illustrations 1 [(a)] A prosecutes B for theft, and wishes the Court to believe that B admitted the theft to C. A must prove the admission. (b) B wishes the Court to believe that, at the time in question, he was elsewhere.

(c) Section 325 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) provides that whoever, except in the case

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Section 106 — Burden of proving fact especially within knowledge

Section 107 — Burden of proving death of person known to have been alive within thirty years

Section 109 — Burden of proof as to relationship in the cases of partners, landlord and tenant, principal and agent

Section 110 — Burden of proof as to ownership

Section 111 — Proof of good faith in transactions where one party is in relation of active confidence

Section 111A — Presumption as to certain offences

The burden of proof is on A. (c) Section 325 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) provides that whoever, except in the case provided for by section 335, voluntarily causes grievous hurt, shall be subject to certain punishments. A is charged with voluntarily causing grievous hurt under section 325. The burden of proving the circumstances bringing the case under section 335 lies on A. Burden of proving fact especially within knowledge. –– When any fact is especially within the knowledge of any person, the burden of proving that fact is upon him. Illustrations (a) When a person does an act with some intention other than that which the character and circumstances of the act suggest, the burden of proving that intention is upon him. (b) A is charged with travelling on a railway without a ticket. The burden of proving that he had a ticket is on him.

(a) any area declared to be a disturbed area under any enactment, for the time being in force,

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Section 112 — Birth during marriage, conclusive proof of legitimacy

Section 113 — Proof of cession of territory

Section 113A — Presumption as to abetment of suicide by a married woman

Section 113B — Presumption as to dowry death

Section 114 — Court may presume existence of certain facts

(a) any area declared to be a disturbed area under any enactment, for the time being in force, making provision for the suppression of disorder and restoration and maintenance of public order; or (b) any area in which there has been, over a period of more than one month, extensive disturbance of the public peace, and it is shown that such person had been at a place in such area at a time when firearms or explosives were used at or from that place to attack or resist the members of any armed forces or the forces charged with the maintenance of public order acting in the discharge of their duties, it shall be presumed, unless the contrary is shown, that such person had committed such offence. (2) The offences referred to in sub-section (1) are the following, namely: –– (a) an offence under section 121, section 121A, section 122 or section 123 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860); (b) criminal conspiracy or attempt to commit, or abetment of, an offence under section 122 or section 123 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).] 112. Birth during marriage, conclusive proof of legitimacy. –– The fact that any person was born during the continuance of a valid marriage between his mother and any man, or within two hundred and eighty days after its dissolution, the mother remaining unmarried, shall be conclusive proof that he is the legitimate son of that man, unless it can be shown that the parties to the marriage had no access to each other at any time when he could have been begotten. Proof of cession of territory. –– A notification in the Gazette of India that any portion of 1 British territory has [before the commencement of Part III of the Government of India Act, 1935 (26 Geo. 2)] been ceded to any Native State, Prince or Ruler, shall be conclusive proof that a valid cession of such territory took place at the date mentioned in such notification. Presumption as to abetment of suicide by a married woman. ––When the question is whether the commission of suicide by a woman had been abetted by her husband or any relative of her husband and it is shown that she had committed suicide within a period of seven years from the date of her marriage and that her husband or such relative of her husband had subjected her to cruelty, the court may presume, having regard to all the other circumstances of the case, that such suicide had been abetted by her husband or by such relative of her husband. 1937, Part III of the Government of India Act 1935, came into force on the 1st April, 1937.

Illustrations

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Illustrations The Court may presume –– (a) that a man who is in possession of stolen goods soon, after the theft is either the thief or has received the goods knowing them to be stolen, unless he can account for his possession; (b) that an accomplice is unworthy of credit, unless he is corroborated in material particulars; (c) that a bill of exchange, accepted or endorsed, was accepted or endorsed for good consideration; (d) that a thing or state of things which has been shown to be in existence within a period shorter than that within which such things or states of things usually cease to exist, is still in existence; (e) that judicial and official acts have been regularly performed; (f) that the common course of business has been followed in particular cases; (g) that evidence which could be and is not produced would, if produced, be unfavourable to the person who withholds it; (h) that if a man refuses to answer a question which he is not compelled to answer by law, the answer, if given, would be unfavourable to him; (i) that when a document creating an obligation is in the hands of the obligor, the obligation has been discharged. But the Court shall also have regard to such facts as the following, in considering whether such maxims do or do not apply to the particular case before it: –– as to illustration (a) –– a shop-keeper has in his bill a marked rupee soon after it was stolen, and cannot account for its possession specifically, but is continually receiving rupees in the course of his business; as to illustration (b) ––A, a person of the highest character, is tried for causing a man’s death by an act of negligence in arranging certain machinery. B, a person of equally good character, who also took part in the arrangement, describes precisely what was done, and admits and explains the common carelessness of A and himself; as to illustration (b) –– a crime is committed by several persons. A, B and C, three of the criminals, are captured on the spot and kept apart from each other. Each gives an account of the crime implicating D, and the accounts corroborate each other in such a manner as to render previous concert highly improbable; as to illustration (c) –– A, the drawer of a bill of exchange, was a man of business. B, the acceptor, was a young and ignorant person, completely under A’s influence; as to illustration (d) –– it is proved that a river ran in a certain course five years ago, but it is known that there have been floods since that time which might change its course; as to illustration (e) –– a judicial act, the regularity of which is in question, was performed under exceptional circumstances; as to illustration (f) –– the question is, whether a letter was received.

Explanation.––In this section, “sexual intercourse” shall mean any of the acts mentioned in clauses

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Section 115 — Estoppel

Section 116 — Estoppel of tenants and of licensee of person in possession

Presumption as to absence of consent in certain prosecution for rape. ––In a prosecution for rape under clause (a), clause (b), clause (c), clause (d), clause (e), clause (f), clause (g), clause (h), clause (i), clause (j), clause (k), clause (l), clause (m) or clause (n) of sub-section (2) of section 376 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), where sexual intercourse by the accused is proved and the question is whether it was without the consent of the woman alleged to have been raped and such woman states in her evidence before the court that she did not consent, the court shall presume that she did not consent. Explanation.––In this section, “sexual intercourse” shall mean any of the acts mentioned in clauses (a) to (d) of section 375 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).] STATE AMENDMENT Chhattisgarh Insertion of new Section 114B.––After section 114A of the Indian Evidence Act, the following shall be inserted, namely:–– 114B. Presumption as to offences committed under section 354, section 354A, section 354B, section 354C, section 354D, section 509, section 509A or section 509B of the Indian Penal Code, 1860.-When the question is whether a person has committed an offence under Section 354, section 354A, section 354B, section 354C, section 354D, section 509, section 509A, or section 509B of the Indian Penal Code and if the victim deposes before the court that she has been subjected to sexual harassment or her modesty was outraged or she was disrobed or she was stalked or her privacy was intruded or she was sexually harassed by any means, as the case may be, the court may, unless contrary is proved, presume that such offence has been committed by that person. [Vide Chhattisgarh Act 25 of 2015, s. 14.] CHAPTER VIII. –– ESTOPPEL 115. Estoppel.––When one person has, by his declaration, act or omission, intentionally caused or permitted another person to believe a thing to be true and to act upon such belief, neither he nor his representative shall be allowed, in any suit or proceeding between himself and such person or his representative, to deny the truth of that thing. Illustration A intentionally and falsely leads B to believe that certain land belongs to A, and thereby induces B to buy and pay for it.

CHAPTER IX. –– OF WITNESSES

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Section 118 — Who may testify

Section 119 — Witness unable to communicate verbally

Section 120 — Parties to civil suit, and their wives or husbands. Husband or wife of person under criminal trial

Section 121 — Judges and Magistrates

Section 122 — Communications during marriage

Section 123 — Evidence as to affairs of State

Section 124 — Official communications

Who may testify. –– All persons shall be competent to testify unless the Court considers that they are prevented from understanding the questions put to them, or from giving rational answers to those questions, by tender years, extreme old age, disease, whether of body or mind, or any other cause of the same kind. Explanation. –– A lunatic is not incompetent to testify, unless he is prevented by his lunacy from understanding the questions put to him and giving rational answers to them. Witness unable to communicate verbally. –– A witness who is unable to speak may give his evidence in any other manner in which he can make it intelligible, as by writing or by signs; but such writing must be written and the signs made in open Court, evidence so given shall be deemed to be oral evidence: Provided that if the witness is unable to communicate verbally, the Court shall take the assistance of an interpreter or a special educator in recording the statement, and such statement shall be video graphed.] 120. Parties to civil suit, and their wives or husbands. Husband or wife of person under criminal trial. –– In all civil proceedings the parties to the suit, and the husband or wife of any party to the suit, shall be competent witnesses. In criminal proceedings against any person, the husband or wife of such person, respectively, shall be a competent witness.

[125. Information as to commission of offences. –– No Magistrate or police-officer shall be

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Section 125 — Information as to commission of offences

Section 126 — Professional communications

Section 127 — Section 126 to apply to interpreters, etc

Section 128 — Privilege not waived by volunteering evidence

Information as to commission of offences. –– No Magistrate or police-officer shall be compelled to say whence he got any information as to the commission of any offence, and no revenue- officer shall be compelled to say whence he got any information as to the commission of any offence against the public revenue. Explanation.–– “Revenue-officer” in this section means any officer employed in or about the business of any branch of the public revenue.] 126. Professional communications. –– No barrister, attorney, pleader or vakil, shall at any time be permitted, unless with his client’s express consent, to disclose any communication made to him in the course and for the purpose of his employment as such barrister, pleader, attorney or vakil, by or on behalf of his client, or to state the contents or condition of any document with which he has become acquainted in the course and for the purpose of his professional employment, or to disclose any advice given by him to his client in the course and for the purpose of such employment: Provided that nothing in this section shall protect from disclosure –– 2 (1) any such communication made in furtherance of any [illegal] purpose, (2) any fact observed by any barrister, pleader, attorney or vakil, in the course of his employment as such, showing that any crime or fraud has been committed since the commencement of his employment. 3 It is immaterial whether the attention of such barrister, [pleader], attorney or vakil was or was not directed to such fact by or on behalf of his client. Explanation. –– The obligation stated in this section continues after the employment has ceased. Illustrations (a) A, a client, says to B, an attorney –– “I have committed forgery, and I wish you to defend me.” As the defence of a man known to be guilty is not a criminal purpose, this communication is protected from disclosure. (b) A, a client, says to B, an attorney –– “I wish to obtain possession of property by the use of a forged deed on which I request you to sue.” This communication, being made in furtherance of a criminal purpose, is not protected from disclosure. (c) A, being charged with embezzlement, retains B, an attorney, to defend him.

[pleader], attorney or vakil as a witness, he shall be deemed to have consented to such disclosure only if

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Section 129 — Confidential communications with legal advisers

Section 130 — Production of title-deeds of witness not a party

Section 131 — Production of documents or electronic records which another person, having possession, could refuse to produce

Section 132 — Witness not excused from answering on ground that answer will criminate

Section 133 — Accomplice

Section 135 — Order of production and examination of witnesses

Section 136 — Judge to decide as to admissibility of evidence

1 [pleader], attorney or vakil as a witness, he shall be deemed to have consented to such disclosure only if he questions such barrister, attorney or vakil on matters which, but for such question, he would not be at liberty to disclose. Confidential communications with legal advisers. –– No one shall be compelled to disclose to the Court any confidential communication which has taken place between him and his legal professional adviser, unless he offers himself as a witness, in which case he may be compelled to disclose any such communications as may appear to the Court necessary to be known in order to explain any evidence which he has given, but no others. Production of title-deeds of witness not a party. –– No witness who is not a party to a suit shall be compelled to produce his title-deeds to any property, or any document in virtue of which he holds any property as pledge or mortgagee or any document the production of which might tend to criminate him, unless he has agreed in writing to produce them with the person seeking the production of such deeds or some person through whom he claims. Production of documents or electronic records which another person, having possession, could refuse to produce. –– No one shall be compelled to produce documents in his possession or electronic records under his control, which any other person would be entitled to refuse to produce if they were in his possession or control, unless such last-mentioned person consents to their production.] 132. Witness not excused from answering on ground that answer will criminate. –– A witness shall not be excused from answering any question as to any matter relevant to the matter in issue in any suit or in any civil or criminal proceeding, upon the ground that the answer to such question will criminate, or may tend directly or indirectly to criminate, such witness, or that it will expose, or tend directly or indirectly to expose, such witness to a penalty or forfeiture of any kind: Proviso. –– Provided that no such answer, which a witness shall be compelled to give, shall subject him to any arrest or prosecution, or be proved against him in any criminal proceeding, except a prosecution for giving false evidence by such answer. If the fact proposed to be proved is one of which evidence is admissible only upon proof of some other fact, such last-mentioned fact must be proved before evidence is given of the fact first-mentioned, unless the party undertakes to give proof of such fact, and the Court is satisfied with such undertaking.

If the relevancy of one alleged fact depends upon another alleged fact being first proved, the Judge

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Section 137 — Examination-in-chief

Section 138 — Order of examinations

Section 139 — Cross-examination of person called to produce a document

Section 140 — Witnesses to character. –– Witnesses to character may be cross-examined and re-examined. 141. Leading questions

If the relevancy of one alleged fact depends upon another alleged fact being first proved, the Judge may, in his discretion, either permit evidence of the first fact to be given before the second fact is proved, or require evidence to be given of the second fact before evidence is given of the first fact. Illustrations (a) It is proposed to prove a statement about a relevant fact by a person alleged to be dead, which statement is relevant under section 32. The fact that the person is dead must be proved by the person proposing to prove the statement, before evidence is given of the statement. (b) It is proposed to prove, by a copy, the contents of a document said to be lost. The fact that the original is lost must be proved by the person proposing to produce the copy, before the copy is produced. (c) A is accused of receiving stolen property knowing it to have been stolen. The relevancy of the denial depends on the identity of the property. The Court may, in its discretion, either require the property to be identified before the denial of the possession is proved, or permit the denial of the possession to be proved before the property is identified. (d) It is proposed to prove a fact (A) which is said to have been the cause or effect of fact in issue.

142. When they must not be asked. –– Leading questions must not, if objected to by the adverse

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Section 142 — When they must not be asked

Section 143 — When they may be asked. –– Leading questions may be asked in cross-examination. 144. Evidence as to matters in writing

Section 145 — Cross-examination as to previous statements in writing

Section 146 — Questions lawful in cross-examination

When they must not be asked. –– Leading questions must not, if objected to by the adverse party, be asked in an examination-in-chief, or in a re-examination, except with the permission of the Court. The Court shall permit leading questions as to matters which are introductory or undisputed, or which have, in its opinion, been already sufficiently proved. When they may be asked. –– Leading questions may be asked in cross-examination. Evidence as to matters in writing. –– Any witness may be asked, whilst under examination, whether any contract, grant or other disposition of property, as to which he is giving evidence, was not contained in a document, and if he says that it was, or if he is about to make any statement as to the contents of any document, which, in the opinion of the Court, ought to be produced, the adverse party may object to such evidence being given until such document is produced, or until facts have been proved which entitle the party who called the witness to give secondary evidence of it. Cross-examination as to previous statements in writing. –– A witness may be cross- examined as to previous statements made by him in writing or reduced into writing, and relevant to matters in question, without such writing being shown to him, or being proved; but, if it is intended to contradict him by the writing, his attention must, before the writing can be proved, be called to those parts of it which are to be used for the purpose of contradicting him. Questions lawful in cross-examination. –– When a witness is cross-examined, he may, in addition to the questions hereinbefore referred to, be asked any questions which tend–– (1) to test his veracity, (2) to discover who he is and what is his position in life, or (3) to shake his credit, by injuring his character, although the answer to such questions might tend directly or indirectly to criminate him, or might expose or tend directly or indirectly to expose him to a penalty or forfeiture: 2 3 [Provided that in a prosecution for an offence under section 376, [section 376A, section 376AB section 376B, section 376C, section 376D, section 376DA, section 376DB] or section 376E of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) or for attempt to commit any such offence, where the question of consent is an issue, it shall not be permissible to adduce evidence or to put questions in the cross-examination of the victim as to the general immoral character, or previous sexual experience, of such victim with any person for proving such consent or the quality of consent.] 1.

147. When witness to be compelled to answer.––If any such question relates to a matter relevant to

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Section 147 — When witness to be compelled to answer

Section 148 — Court to decide when question shall be asked and when witness compelled to answer

Section 149 — Question not to be asked without reasonable grounds

Section 150 — Procedure of Court in case of question being asked without reasonable grounds

Section 151 — Indecent and scandalous questions

When witness to be compelled to answer.––If any such question relates to a matter relevant to the suit or proceeding, the provisions of section 132 shall apply thereto. Court to decide when question shall be asked and when witness compelled to answer. –– If any such question relates to a matter not relevant to the suit or proceeding, except in so far as it affects the credit of the witness by injuring his character, the Court shall decide whether or not the witness shall be compelled to answer it, and may, if it thinks fit, warn the witness that he is not obliged to answer it. In exercising its discretion, the Court shall have regard to the following considerations:–– (1) such questions are proper if they are of such a nature that the truth of the imputation conveyed by them would seriously affect the opinion of the Court as to the credibility of the witness on the matter to which he testifies; (2) such questions are improper if the imputation which they convey relates to matters so remote in time, or of such a character, that the truth of the imputation would not affect, or would affect in a slight degree, the opinion of the Court as to the credibility of the witness on the matter to which he testifies; (3) such questions are improper if there is a great disproportion between the importance of the imputation made against the witness’s character and the importance of his evidence; (4) the Court may, if it sees fit, draw, from the witness’s refusal to answer, the inference that the answer if given would be unfavourable. Question not to be asked without reasonable grounds.–– No such question as is referred to in section 148 ought to be asked, unless the person asking it has reasonable grounds for thinking that the imputation which it conveys is well-founded. There are here no reasonable ground for the question. (d) A witness, of whom nothing whatever is known, being questioned as to his mode of life and means of living, gives unsatisfactory answers. Procedure of Court in case of question being asked without reasonable grounds.–– If the Court is of opinion that any such question was asked without reasonable grounds, it may, if it was asked by any barrister, pleader, vakil or attorney, report the circumstances of the case to the High Court or other authority to which such barrister, pleader, vakil or attorney is subject in the exercise of his profession.

152. Questions intended to insult or annoy.–– The Court shall forbid any question which appears to

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Section 152 — Questions intended to insult or annoy

Section 153 — Exclusion of evidence to contradict answers to questions testing veracity

Section 154 — Question by party to his own witness

Section 155 — Impeaching credit of witness

Questions intended to insult or annoy.–– The Court shall forbid any question which appears to it to be intended to insult or annoy, or which, though proper in itself, appears to the Court needlessly offensive in form. Exclusion of evidence to contradict answers to questions testing veracity. ––When a witness has been asked and has answered any question which is relevant to the inquiry only in so far as it tends to shake his credit by injuring his character, no evidence shall be given to contradict him; but, if he answers falsely, he may after wards be charged with giving false evidence. Exception 2.–– If a witness is asked any question tending to impeach his impartiality, and answers it by denying the facts suggested, he may be contradicted. The evidence is admissible, not as contradicting A on a fact which affects his credit, but as contradicting the alleged fact that B was seen on the day in question in Lahore. He may be contradicted on the ground that the question tends to impeach his impartiality. Question by party to his own witness. –– [(1)] The Court may, in its discretion, permit the person who calls a witness to put any questions to him which might be put in cross-examination by the adverse party.

(1) By the evidence of persons who testify that they, from their knowledge of the witness,

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Section 156 — Questions tending to corroborate evidence of relevant fact, admissible

Section 157 — Former statements of witness may be proved to corroborate later testimony as to same fact

(1) By the evidence of persons who testify that they, from their knowledge of the witness, believe him to be unworthy of credit; 1 (2) By proof that the witness has been bribed, or has [accepted] the offer of a bribe, or has received any other corrupt inducement to give his evidence; (3) By proof of former statements inconsistent with any part of his evidence which is liable to be contradicted; 2 * * * * * Explanation. –– A witness declaring another witness to be unworthy of credit may not, upon his examination-in-chief, give reasons for his belief, but he may be asked his reasons in cross-examination, and the answers which he gives cannot be contradicted, though, if they are false, he may afterwards be charged with giving false evidence. Evidence is offered to show that, on a previous occasion, he said that he had not delivered goods to B. The evidence is admissible. (b) A is indicted for the murder of B. Evidence is offered to show that, on a previous occasion, C said that the wound was not given by A or in his presence. Questions tending to corroborate evidence of relevant fact, admissible. –– When a witness whom it is intended to corroborate gives evidence of any relevant fact, he may be questioned as to any other circumstances which he observed at or near to the time or place at which such relevant fact occurred, if the Court is of opinion that such circumstances, if proved, would corroborate the testimony of the witness as to the relevant fact which he testifies. Independent evidence of these facts may be given in order to corroborate his evidence as to the robbery itself.

158. What matters may be proved in connection with proved statement relevant under section

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Section 158 — What matters may be proved in connection with proved statement relevant under section 32 or 33

Section 159 — Refreshing memory

Section 160 — Testimony to facts stated in document mentioned in section 159

Section 161 — Right of adverse party as to writing used to refresh memory

Section 162 — Production of documents

Section 163 — Giving, as evidence, of document called for and produced on notice

What matters may be proved in connection with proved statement relevant under section 32 or 33. ––Whenever any statement, relevant under section 32 or 33, is proved, all matters may be proved either in order to contradict or to corroborate it, or in order to impeach or confirm the credit of the person by whom it was made, which might have been proved if that person had been called as a witness and had denied upon cross-examination the truth of the matter suggested. Refreshing memory.–– A witness may, while under examination, refresh his memory by referring to any writing made by himself at the time of the transaction concerning which he is questioned, or so soon afterwards that the Court considers it likely that the transaction was at that time fresh in his memory. The witness may also refer to any such writing made by any other person, and read by the witness within the time aforesaid, if when he read it he knew it to be correct. When witness may use copy of document to refresh memory. –– Whenever a witness may refresh his memory by reference to any document, he may, with the permission of the Court, refer to a copy of such document: Provided the Court be satisfied that there is sufficient reason for the non-production of the original. An expert may refresh his memory by reference to professional treatises. The Court, if it sees fit, may inspect the document, unless it refers to matters of State, or take other evidence to enable it to determine on its admissibility.

164. Using, as evidence, of document production of which was refused on notice.–– When a party

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Section 164 — Using, as evidence, of document production of which was refused on notice

Section 165 — Judge’s power to put questions or order production

Section 167 — No new trial for improper admission or rejection of evidence

Using, as evidence, of document production of which was refused on notice.–– When a party refuses to produce a document which he has had notice to produce, he cannot afterwards use the document as evidence without the consent of the other party or the order of the Court. Illustration A sues B on an agreement and gives B notice to produce it. At the trial, A calls for the document and B refuses to produce it. B seeks to produce the document itself to contradict the secondary evidence given by A, or in order to show that the agreement is not stamped. Judge’s power to put questions or order production. –– The Judge may, in order to discover or to obtain proper proof of relevant facts, ask any question he pleases, in any form, at any time, of any witness, or of the parties about any fact relevant or irrelevant; and may order the production of any document or thing; and neither the parties nor their agents shall be entitled to make any objection to any such question or order, nor, without the leave of the Court, to cross-examine any witness upon any answer given in reply to any such question: Provided that the judgment must be based upon facts declared by this Act to be relevant, and duly proved: Provided also that this section shall not authorize any Judge to compel any witness to answer any question, or to produce any document which such witness would be entitled to refuse to answer or produce under sections 121 to 131, both inclusive, if the question were asked or the document were called for by the adverse party; nor shall the Judge ask any question which it would be improper for any other person to ask under section 148 or 149; nor shall he dispense with primary evidence of any document, except in the cases hereinbefore excepted. No new trial for improper admission or rejection of evidence. –– The improper admission or rejection of evidence shall not be ground of itself for a new trial or reversal of any decision in any case, if it shall appear to the Court before which such objection is raised that, independently of the evidence objected to and admitted, there was sufficient evidence to justify the decision, or that, if the rejected evidence had been received, it ought not to have varied the decision.